Frederick F. Knowlton

Effects of Dam-Newborn Fawn Behavior on Capture and Mortality

The behavior pattern of white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus sirginianus) dams and newborn fawns was studied in south Texas. Understanding and concentrating on the behavior of the dam allows capture of large numbers of the normally cryptic young fawns. During the first days of life, fawns remain isolated and bedded most of the time. Dams seek out their fawns only a few times a day for nursing and grooming. Recognizing stereotyped behavior patterns and postures elicited when the dam is with or near a fawn greatly facilitates the location and capture of fawns. A description of whitetail fawns 1-2 days old is given. Capture, and particularly the marking, of young fawns increased mortality. We recommend that precations be taken to miniinize mortality, especially in areas where predators are com-

Variation in coyote diets associated with season and successional changes in vegetation

Diets of coyotes (Canis latrans) on the Rob and Bessie Welder Wildlife Refuge (WWR) in south Texas were determined from analyses of scats collected during 1961-62, 1973-74, 1975-76, and 1978-79. Diets varied among years due to successional changes in vegetation and changes in prey abundance. Coyote diets also varied seasonally, reflecting changing abundances of a wide variety of food items, differential vulnerability of prey, effects of plant phenology, and weather conditions. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 5 1(2):273-277 Short-term studies have shown pronounced seasonal variation in coyote diets related to the availability of various foods (Gipson and Sealander 1976, Litvaitis and Shaw 1980, MacCracken and Hansen 1982, Van Vuren and Thompson 1982, Harrison and Harrison 1984). However, reports of coyote diets over long periods of time from the same area (e.g., Leopold and Krausman 1986) are scarce, and we are not aware of studies reporting variations in diets associated with successional changes in vegetation. In this paper we report on coyote diets on the WWR during 1961-62, 1973-74, 1975-76, and 1978-79, comparing feeding patterns among these periods and relating variations in diets to changes in vegetation and vertebrate prey populations. We thank the Rob and Bessie Welder Wildlife Foundation (WWF), Sinton, Texas and the Natl. Sci. Found. for funding this study. This paper is WWF Contrib. 302.

Activity Patterns of Young White-Tailed Deer Fawns in South Texas

We studied the activity of 27 young white—tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) fawns on the Welder Wildlife Refuge in South Texas. we attached motion—sensitive radiotransmitters to 15 male and 12 female fawns, 3—12 day old,and monitored their activity for as long as 9 weeks. These fawns primarily were diurnal, although most were active for short periods once or twice a night. The amount and timing of activity of each fawn varied considerably; however, total activity increased with age as a fawn became stronger and more agile. Males were more active than females during daytime and in total at all ages, but females were more active at night. During their first two weeks of life, fawns were active an average of 8% of the time. By 1 month of age, males were active about 16% of the time, and females were active 12% of the time. The average number of daytime activity periods increased from two in fawns during their first week to five—six periods at 1 month of age. Most activity periods were less than 35 minutes long, but they increased in duration with fawn age. Two—hour activity periods were rare until fawns were more than a month old. The increase in fawn activity with age was related to the fawns increasing ability to follow its dam, and its gradual integration into the adult deer social unit. Fawns were more active during midday hours in their first week of life, but they were most active in morning and evening thereafter.

Management Implications of Coyote Spacing Patterns in Southern Texas

We determined the spatial distribution and social composition of female coyotes (Canis latrans) on 2 areas in southern Texas. The population contained territorial (66%) and transient (34%) females. Exclusive core areas for animals in adjacent territories enabled interpretation of territorial spacing patterns. The harmonic mean estimate of territorial range size (75% utilization contour) was 2.4 km2 with 76% of the ranges 2.5 yr); 65% of the transients were 1-2 years old. We explored implications of spacing patterns for coyote management programs, especially population reduction, with mathematical simulations using demographic estimates from this study. Simulations indicated that there were 1.5 and 4.2 x as many coyotes using areas of 100 and 5 km2, respectively, as might be inferred from density estimates. The simulations suggested that coyote population reduction, even on small areas, may be difficult to achieve. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 52(4):632-640 Coyotes exhibit a well-developed social organization throughout most of their geographic range (Camenzind 1978; Bowen 1981, 1982; Andelt 1985; Bekoff and Wells 1986). Although social organization provides the basis for territorial spacing mechanisms, and undoubtedly varies with mortality rates within populations, it has not been evaluated with regard to management programs aimed at manipulating coyote populations. We studied the spatial distribution and social composition of female coyotes in a high-density, lightly exploited population in southern Texas (Knowlton 1972, Andelt 1985, Windberg et al. 1985). We quantify spatial use patterns in the coyote population and describe the social composition in terms of age and territorial status. We also explored implications of spacing patterns for population management via a mathematical simulation. We greatly appreciate the radio-telemetry monitoring by D. L. LeCroy, C. D. Mitchell, E. W. Pearson, R. T. Sterner, K. L. Tope, B. G. Wagner Jr., C. E. Wahlgren, and D. E. Zemlicka. C. D. Mitchell assisted with capturing coyotes. G. W. Smith and L. C. Stoddart assisted with data analysis. R. E. Johnson and D. K. Steffen refurbished transmitters. L. S. Murray, S. C. Scibienski, T. S. Scibienski, and J. Van Cleve III permitted access to private lands for this study. We thank R. J. Burns, G. E. Connolly, T. K. Fuller, J. M. Packard, and L. C. Stoddart for helpful reviews of our manuscript. This study was conducted under the guidance and support of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. The Denver Wildlife Research Center transferred to the imal and Plant Health Inspection Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture on 3 March 1986. The Caesar Kleberg Wildlife Research Institute contributed financial support for this study.

Coyote responses to changing jackrabbit abundance affect sheep predation

Domestic sheep ranchers generally perceive abundances of natural prey and coyotes (Canis latrans) as important factors affecting coyote predation rates on sheep. To determine the effect of a changing natural prey base on coyote predation rates, we estimated coyote density and predation rates on ewes and lambs during part of 1 cycle of black-tailed jackrabbit (Lepus californicus) abundance on a 2,300 km2 area of the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory in southcentral Idaho from 1979-1985. We used 100, 1.6-km scat collection lines and 80, 1.6-km flushing transects to assess coyote and jackrabbit densities, respectively. Ewe and lamb loss rates were determined from questionnaires sent to all 13 producers grazing sheep on the area. Spring coyote density varied from 0.10 to 1.39 coyotes km-2 in response to a systematic fluctuation in jackrabbit density from 0 to 243 jackrabbits km-2. Reported total loss rates of ewes and lambs varied from 2.2 to 42.1 ewes/10(5) ewe-days and 33.0 to 163 lambs/10(5) lamb-days and were linearly and directly related to coyote density (P 0.18) except for 1 year when jackrabbits were virtually absent from the study area and the loss of lambs escalated dramatically. Our data suggest the increased losses of lambs resulted from reduced buffering by natural prey. DOI:10.2458/azu_jrm_v54i1_stoddart

Implementing recovery of the red wolf-integrating research scientists and managers

Abstract The United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) developed guidelines for the composition and role of endangered species recovery implementation teams, but few teams have been established and their success has not been evaluated. Using the recovery program of the red wolf (Canis rufus) as a model, we describe the genesis, function, and success of the Red Wolf Recovery Implementation Team (RWRIT) in helping guide the establishment of a viable red wolf population in eastern North Carolina. In operation since 1999, the RWRIT meets bi-annually to review USFWS progress and provide recommendations aimed at maximizing success of species recovery. The team is comprised of 8 research scientists from disciplines including population genetics, canid ecology, population ecology, veterinary medicine, and captive management. Representation from each of these disciplines is deemed necessary for proper evaluation of recovery progress and assessment of future needs. Meeting attendance by the USFWS field management team ensures both proper reporting of past progress and future implementation of management recommendations. Over time, RWRIT members have assumed specific assignments or data analyses, further contributing to the recovery effort. Through the combined efforts of the USFWS field team and the RWRIT, the threat of introgression of coyote (Canis latrans) genes into the red wolf population has been substantially curtailed within the recovery area, and red wolf numbers and range have increased. The RWRIT serves as an example of a recovery implementation team that is successfully incorporating the principles of adaptive management and whose template could be adapted to other endangered species.

Evaluation of physical and behavioral traits of llamas associated with aggressiveness toward sheep-threatening canids

Abstract Llamas ( Lama glama ) are frequently used as guard animals by sheep producers as part of their predation management programs. However, few data are available concerning physical and behavioral attributes that distinguish between effective and ineffective guardian llamas. Our study addressed this issue and evaluated aggressiveness of llamas toward dogs. Initially, we identified physical and behavioral traits of individual llamas. Twenty llamas were randomly assigned to one of four groups ( n =5 per group). We used focal group sampling techniques to rank individual llamas according to frequencies with which they displayed alertness, leadership, dominant, aggressive, and threatening behaviors as well as postures indicating dominance or subordination. We then examined the behavior of individual llamas with sheep. Finally, we documented interactions among llamas, sheep, and a surrogate predator (border collie). Our results showed that leadership, alertness, and weight of llamas were correlated with aggressiveness displayed toward the dog ( p s =0.064, 0.012, and 0.039 respectively). These traits are easily recognized and can be used by producers to select llamas as livestock guardians.

Aspects of coyote predation on Angora goats

A study to assess characteristics of coyotes (Canis latrans Say) that attack livestock was conducted in southern New Mexico. During 4-16 April 1991, 38 Angora does (Capra hircus L.) and their 34 offspring (kids) were exposed to coyote predation in 3 small experimental free-ranging flocks on the study area. One doe and 14 kids were killed by predators, including at least 12 cases of coyote predation. Coyotes selectively preyed on the smaller kids, and on goats in relatively small groups. Remains of 11 kids killed by predators were cached within the core areas of territorial coyotes. Six of 8 territorial coyotes and 5 of 9 transients (nonterritorial coyotes), with ranges that overlapped the distribution of flocks, consumed goats.

Long Distance Movements of Black-Tailed Jackrabbits

During an intensive demographic study of black-tailed jackrabbits (Lepus californicus) in Curlew Valley, Utah, USA, we noted unexpected large displacements among 30% of our study animals. Although understanding movement patterns-especially long-distance movements-should be an essential element for programs studying and managing wild populations, reports of such events among jackrabbits are rare. We describe aspects of long-distance movements within I jackrabbit population. We placed radiotransmitters on 393 black-tailed jackrabbits and accumulated 28,945 animal-days of data during 5 study periods between 1979 and 1984. In 146 instances, we documented hares moving ≥5.0 km, typically within 2-10 days. Although 3 hares moved ≥25 km (longest = 35 km), 63% of such movements were ≤10 km. Long movements occurred in all seasons but on an animal-day basis were most frequent February-April (24%) and October-December (52%). Vectors between north and east comprised 66% of long-distance movements documented between March and May. However, 65% of such movements during summer and 83% during fall and winter involved vectors between south and west. These movements appeared to represent migrations to and from traditional wintering areas. Despite the magnitude of these movements, the Curlew Valley jackrabbit population appears to be demographically closed, but if timing of movements varies among sex and age classes, demographic analyses on geographic units that do not encompass the entire valley could be affected. Efforts to mitigate jackrabbit depredations on growing crops or stored forages should incorporate information about seasonal movement patterns as well as the areas potential management programs might affect.

Transmission of Ancylostoma caninum and Alaria marcianae in Coyotes (Canis latrans)

One of seven female coyotes (Canis latrans) captured in Webb County, Texas during September 1986 and confined and mated in holding facilities at Millville, Utah whelped the following spring. The maternal female (>5-yr-old) and her five neonates were killed at 22 days postparturition. All were infected with adult Ancylostoma caninum and were passing eggs in their feces. Also, the neonates and maternal female were infected with immature and adult Alaria marcianae, respectively. These findings suggested that the transmammary route is an important transmission mechanism for acquisition of these species of helminths in coyotes. The lack of overdispersion in the frequency distribution of these parasites and infection of the entire litter indicated that transmission from the infected female was nonselective among the pups.