Frederico A.V. Castro

Cytotoxicity Mechanism of Two Naphthoquinones (Menadione and Plumbagin) in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

BACKGROUND Quinones are compounds extensively used in studies of oxidative stress due to their role in plants as chemicals for defense. These compounds are of great interest for pharmacologists and scientists, in general, because several cancer chemotherapeutic agents contain the quinone nucleus. However, due to differences in structures and diverse pharmacological effects, the exact toxicity mechanisms exerted by quinones are far from elucidatation. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Using Saccharomyces cerevisiae, we evaluated the main mechanisms of toxicity of two naphthoquinones, menadione and plumbagin, by determining tolerance and oxidative stress biomarkers such as GSH and GSSG, lipid peroxidation levels, as well as aconitase activity. The importance of glutathione transferases (GST) in quinone detoxification was also addressed. The GSSG/GSH ratio showed that menadione seemed to exert its toxicity mainly through the generation of ROS while plumbagin acted as an electrophile reacting with GSH. However, the results showed that, even by different pathways, both drugs were capable of generating oxidative stress through their toxic effects. Our results showed that the control strain, BY4741, and the glutathione transferase deficient strains (gtt1Delta and gtt2Delta) were sensitive to both compounds. With respect to the role of GST isoforms in cellular protection against quinone toxicity, we observed that the Gtt2 deficient strain was unable to overcome lipid peroxidation, even after a plumbagin pre-treatment, indicating that this treatment did not improve tolerance when compared with the wild type strain. Cross-tolerance experiments confirmed distinct cytotoxicity mechanisms for these naphthoquinones since only a pre-treatment with menadione was able to induce acquisition of tolerance against stress with plumbagin. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE These results suggest different responses to menadione and plumbagin which could be due to the fact that these compounds use different mechanisms to exert their toxicity. In addition, the Gtt2 isoform seemed to act as a general protective factor involved in quinone detoxification.

Synthesis, characterization and biological activities of mononuclear Co(III) complexes as potential bioreductively activated prodrugs.

Aiming to investigate the use of tridentate ligands to develop new bireductively activated prodrugs, two N(2)O-donor ligands (HL1: [(2-hydroxybenzyl)(2-(imidazol-2-yl)ethyl)]amine; and HL2: [(2-hydroxybenzyl)(2-(pyridil-2-yl)ethyl]amine) were used to synthesize new Co(III) complexes, 1 and 2. Both complexes were characterized by X-ray crystallography, mass spectrometry, electrochemistry, IR, UV-visible and (1)H NMR spectroscopies. Electrochemical data in methanol revealed that the Co(III)-->Co(II) reduction of 1 (-0.84V vs. normal hydrogen electrode - NHE) is more positive than 2 (-1.13V vs. NHE), while it was expected to be more negative due to better sigma-donor ability of imidazole ring in HL1, compared to pyridine in HL2. Considering that reduction processes on Co(III) center may involve the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO), it might play an important role on the electronic properties of the complexes, and could explain the observed redox potentials. Then, geometry optimizations of 1 and 2 were performed using the density functional theory (DFT), and different group participation in their LUMO is demonstrated. Using Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells as eukaryotic model, it is shown that in situ generated reduced species, 1(red) and 2(red), have high capacity to inhibit cellular growth, with IC50 (0.50mM for both complexes) lower than cisplatin IC50 (0.6mM) at the same time of exposure. Regarding to their ability to promote S. cerevisiae cells death, after 24 h, cells became susceptible only when exposed to 1(red) and 2(red): (i) at concentrations higher than 0.5mM in a non-dose dependence, and (ii) in anaerobic metabolism. These data reveal the potential of 1 and 2 as bioreductively activated prodrugs, since their oxidized forms do not present expressive activities when compared to their reduced forms.

Azido- and chlorido-cobalt complex as carrier-prototypes for antitumoral prodrugs.

Cobalt(III) complexes are well-suited systems for cytotoxic drug release under hypoxic conditions. Here, we investigate the effect of cytotoxic azide release by cobalt-containing carrier-prototypes for antitumoral prodrugs. In addition, we study the species formed after reduction of Co(3+) → Co(2+) in the proposed models for these prodrugs. Three new complexes, [Co(III)(L)(N3)2]BF4(1), [{Co(II)(L)(N3)}2](ClO4)2(2), and [Co(II)(L)Cl]PF6(3), L=[(bis(1-methylimidazol-2-yl)methyl)(2-(pyridyl-2-yl)ethyl)amine], were synthesized and studied by several spectroscopic, spectrometric, electrochemical, and crystallographic methods. Reactivity and spectroscopic data reveal that complex 1 is able to release N3(-) either after reduction with ascorbic acid, or by ambient light irradiation, in aqueous phosphate buffer (pH6.2, 7.0 and 7.4) and acetonitrile solutions. The antitumoral activities of compounds 1-3 were tested in normoxia on MCF-7 (human breast adenocarcinoma), PC-3 (human prostate) and A-549 (human lung adenocarcinoma epithelial) cell lines, after 24h of exposure. Either complexes or NaN3 presented IC50 values higher than 200 μM, showing lower cytotoxicity than the clinical standard antitumoral complex cisplatin, under the same conditions. Complexes 1-3 were also evaluated in hypoxia on A-549 and results indicate high IC50 data (>200 μM) after 24h of exposure. However, an increase of cancer cell susceptibility to 1 and 2 was observed at 300 μM. Regarding complex 3, no cytotoxic activity was observed in the same conditions. The data presented here indicate that the tridentate ligand L is able to stabilize both oxidation states of cobalt (+3 and +2). In addition, the cobalt(III) complex generates the low cytotoxic cobalt(II) species after reduction, which supports their use as as carrier prototypes for antitumoral prodrugs.

Brazilian propolis protects Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells against oxidative stress

Propolis is a natural product widely used for humans. Due to its complex composition, a number of applications (antimicrobial, antiinflammatory, anesthetic, cytostatic and antioxidant) have been attributed to this substance. Using Saccharomyces cerevisiae as a eukaryotic model we investigated the mechanisms underlying the antioxidant effect of propolis from Guarapari against oxidative stress. Submitting a wild type (BY4741) and antioxidant deficient strains (ctt1Δ, sod1Δ, gsh1Δ, gtt1Δ and gtt2Δ) either to 15 mM menadione or to 2 mM hydrogen peroxide during 60 min, we observed that all strains, except the mutant sod1Δ, acquired tolerance when previously treated with 25 μg/mL of alcoholic propolis extract. Such a treatment reduced the levels of ROS generation and of lipid peroxidation, after oxidative stress. The increase in Cu/Zn-Sod activity by propolis suggests that the protection might be acting synergistically with Cu/Zn-Sod.

Protective effects of flavonoids and extract from Vellozia kolbekii Alves against oxidative stress induced by hydrogen peroxide in yeast

Two flavonoids 3,5,7,3′,4′-pentahydroxy-6-prenylflavonol (1) and 3,5,7,3′,4′-pentahydroxy-8-methyl-6-prenylflavonol (2) were isolated from the ethyl acetate extract of sheaths of Vellozia kolbekii Alves (Velloziaceae). This is the first time that compound 2 has been described. The crude extract and flavonoids were found to be active as 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavengers and were able to the increase tolerance of the eukaryotic microorganism Saccharomyces cerevisiae to oxidative stress generated by H2O2. The protective effect was correlated with a reduction in the oxidation of proteins and lipids. In addition, flavonoids isolated from Velloziaceae showed an inhibitory effect on mutations in p53, which is mutated and nonfunctional in more than 50% of cases of human cancer.

Protection against cisplatin in calorie-restricted Saccharomyces cerevisiae is mediated by the nutrient-sensor proteins Ras2, Tor1, or Sch9 through its target Glutathione

There is substantial interest in developing alternative strategies for cancer chemotherapy aiming to increase drug specificity and prevent tumor resistance. Calorie restriction (CR) has been shown to render human cancer cells more susceptible to drugs than normal cells. Indeed, deficiency of nutrient signaling proteins mimics CR, which is sufficient to improve oxidative stress response and life expectancy only in healthy cells. Thus, although CR and reduction of nutrient signaling may play an important role in cellular response to chemotherapy, the full underlying mechanisms are still not completely understood. Here, we investigate the relationship between the nutrient sensor proteins Ras2, Sch9, or Tor1 and the response of calorie-restricted Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells to cisplatin. Using wild-type and nutrient-sensing mutant strains, we show that deletion of any of these proteins mimics CR and is sufficient to increase cell protection. Moreover, we show that glutathione (GSH) is essential for proper CR protection of yeast cells under cisplatin chemotherapy. By measuring the survival rates and GSH levels, we found that cisplatin cytotoxicity leads to a decrease in GSH content reflecting in an increase of oxidative damage. Finally, investigating DNA fragmentation and apoptosis, we conclude that GSH contributes to CR-mediated cell survival.