Fredrik C. Størmer

Ibotenic acid in Amanita muscaria spores and caps

Summary Ibotenic acid (α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-isoxazole acetic acid) was separated from spores and caps from Amanita muscaria by reversed phase high performance liquid chromatography and identified by flow injection analysis with mass spectrometric detection. The keto and enol tautomers of ibotenic acid were separated and their ratio of 96:4 in favour of the enol form was determined. On average the ibotenic acid content was 0.0054 ± 0.0010% of the spores and 0.017 ± 0.010% in fresh caps. Muscimol, the decarboxylated product from ibotenic acid, was neither detected in spores nor in caps. 50 nanomol of ibotenic acid, muscimol or extracts from spores or caps did not inhibit the growth of Bacillus subtilis.

The presence of orellanine in spores and basidiocarp from Cortinarius orellanus and Cortinarius rubellus

This is the first report quantifying the orellanine content in basidiospores. The toxin content and tissue distribution of orellanine were determined from Cortinarius orellanus (Fr.) Fr. and Cortinarius rubellus Cooke. Basidiospores, the basidiocarp, divided into cap and stem, and mycorrhiza roots were analyzed to determine the amount of orellanine by reversed phase high performance liquid chromatography and thin layer chromatography. The orellanine contents in spores were 0.31% (C. orellanus) and 0.09% (C. rubellus). In caps, we found the toxin content to be 0.94% (C. orellanus) and 0.78% (C. rubellus), in stems 0.48% (C. orellanus) and 0.42% (C. rubellus) and in mycorrhiza roots from C. rubellus we determined the orellanine contents to 0.03%. In addition, extracts from the different structures of the basidiocarp of C. orellanus and C. rubellus, with an orellanine content corresponding to 25 nmol, inhibited the growth of Bacillus subtilis.

Membrane-bound memory in the neurons?

That information can be stored in the form of neural activityassociated magnetic fields has been suggested [1] and it has been demonstrated that a combination of ferritin and magnetite produce magnetic signals in the brain [2]. We suggest that memory is stored in clusters of these compounds that occur on the inside of the membranes in the neurons and that the dendrites function as a reading frame. It has been shown that single atoms are able to store information by changing the orientation of their individual spins. Thus extreme amounts of information can be stored into tiny devices [3]. This indicates that also ferritin and/or magnetite can be involved in memory storage. We believe that only a binary system is able to fulfil the requirements for speed and accuracy in the neural activity system. In the neurons there are two main compounds connected to magnetism. One is ferritin, an iron carrying protein, the other compound is magnetite. It is formed as ferrimagnetic crystals inside the neurons. They are membrane bound and are orientated in linear chains containing up to about 80 crystals per chain which leads to maximal magnetic moment for each crystal [4]. Ferromagnetic crystals interact more than a million times more strongly with external magnetic fields than do ferritin. That information storage is connected to the neurons is also supported by the observation that single neurons from mice can store information for as long as a minute and perhaps even longer [5]. Anomalous concentrations of iron are known to be associated with Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s and Huntington’s diseases. Knowing the precise mechanism for memory storage could lead to information about several neurological disorders.

Evolution and possible storage of information in a magnetite system of significance for brain development

The initial evolutionary electromagnetic steps in the history of brain development are still unknown, although such knowledge might be of high relevance in understanding human degenerative diseases. All prokaryote organisms, one-celled or multicellular, must have an inherited system to process and store information activating instincts and reflexes, in order to give a quick response to external stimuli. We argue that magnetite is an obvious compound to be evaluated as an initial precursor from prebiotic Earth history in the evolution of such a system. Magnetite is a stable ferrimagnetic compound, present in organisms ranging from bacteria to humans. It occurred naturally in the early Earth environment and was later synthesized de novo in biotic organisms. We suggest that the use of magnetite has evolved to represent the main storage system for learned memory in all organisms living today.

Is magnetite a universal memory molecule

Human stem cells possess memory, and consequently all living human cells must have a memory system. How memory is stored in cells and organisms is an open question. Magnetite is perhaps the best candidate to be a universal memory molecule. Magnetite may give us a clue, because it is the Earths most distributed and important magnetic material. It is found in living organisms with no known functions except for involvement in navigation in some organisms. In humans magnetite is found in the brain, heart, liver and spleen. Humans suffer from memory dysfunctions in many cases when iron is out of balance. Anomalous concentrations of magnetite is known to be associated with a neurodegenerative disorder like Alzheimers disease. Due to the rapid speed and accuracy of our brain, memory and its functions must be governed by quantum mechanics.

Magnetite in dura and pia mater in human brain. A shield against electromagnetic radiation

A recent meta-analysis of over 60,000 cycles definitively shows that premature progesterone elevation, improperly named premature luteinization, has a detrimental effect on pregnancy rates after in vitro fertilization [1]. Similarly in donor and frozen cycles, premature progesterone administration during endometrial preparation reduces clinical pregnancy rates [2]. Premature progesterone elevation has been shown to modify endometrial genes expression impairing endometrial receptivity. Presently, the only effective approach to avoid this detrimental effect is embryo freezing, deferring embryo transfer on artificial endometrium. However embryo freezing is an extra burden for IVF lab and could induce embryo damage. On the contrary, as stated by the recent meta-analysis, an effective approach to prevent premature luteinization in fresh cycles is not yet available. Previous studies have shown that metformin inhibits the first steps of steroidogenesis (Star, HSD3B) dose dependently reducing granulosa cells progesterone output [3]. Moreover other authors have recently reported that low dose metformin could improve IVF outcome in non PCO repeaters [4]. So, considering the safety of this drug before pregnancy, from February 2013 we are giving metformin to consenting patients from first ultrasound monitoring until ovulation triggering. A significant reduction of premature luteinization (24/115, 20% vs 162/537, 30% P = 0.02) and improvement of pregnancy rates in comparison with historic controls irrespective of patient’s ovarian reserve (AMH 6 0.7 ng/ml 23/62 vs 30/121 P = 0.04; AMH > 0.7 ng/ml 31/ 85 vs 51/196 P = 0.03) have been observed. Our data, if confirmed by a RCT, should suggest metformin administration as an effective way to maximize endometrial receptivity by preventing premature luteinization.

Schizophrenia, cryptochromes and magnetite. A possible connection?

Since cryptochromes have an effect upon circadian physiology and magnetite may be involved in memory storage, there must be a link between these compounds and schizophrenia.

A proposed tandem mechanism for memory storage in neurons involving magnetite and prions

Knowledge about how information is stored in neurons of animals and in the human brain is still incomplete. A hypothesis related to long-term changes in synaptic efficiency has strong experimental support, but does not seem to be able to explain all observations. It has recently been proposed that magnetite together with a prion-like protein could be involved in a tandem mechanism for storage of memory in neurons in which electric impulses are received and reshaped by the magnetite to a form which can be accepted by the protein. The magnetite crystals can be magnetized by an electrical impulse, but they cannot hold the magnetism, which drops to zero after each impulse. Therefore, magnetite cannot be the substance in which information is stored. In the present paper we explain how a tandem mechanism could function in a neuron in which magnetite is situated together with a prion-like protein close to the cell surface membrane of the axon. We assume in addition that the information is stored in special storage neurons. With this, we propose a new hypothesis for information storage in neurons which could operate in addition to synaptic plasticity, but perhaps in different neurons.

Is blue light, cryptochrome in the eye, and magnetite in the brain involved in the development of frontotemporal dementia and other diseases?

When cryptochrome in the retina is exposed to blue light, it undergo series of complicated chemical reactions. One of these intermediates has magnetic properties. It could be a link between the magnetic stage of cryptochrome in the retina and magnetite in the brain. A disturbance in this system could be involved in the development of frontotemporal dementia and other mental disturbances like Alzheimers disease. There could also be a link between circadian rhythms and memory dysfunction connected to schizophrenia, type 2 diabetes, and blue light.