Fritz Eichenseher

Rapid Multiplex Detection and Differentiation of Listeria Cells by Use of Fluorescent Phage Endolysin Cell Wall Binding Domains

ABSTRACT The genus Listeria comprises food-borne pathogens associated with severe infections and a high mortality rate. Endolysins from bacteriophages infecting Listeria are promising tools for both their detection and control. These proteins feature a modular organization, consisting of an N-terminal enzymatically active domain (EAD), which contributes lytic activity, and a C-terminal cell wall binding domain (CBD), which targets the lysin to its substrate. Sequence comparison among 12 different endolysins revealed high diversity among the enzymes functional domains and allowed classification of their CBDs into two major groups and five subclasses. This diversity is reflected in various binding properties, as determined by cell wall binding assays using CBDs fused to fluorescent marker proteins. Although some proteins exhibited a broad binding range and recognize Listeria strains representing all serovars, others target specific serovars only. The CBDs also differed with respect to the number and distribution of ligands recognized on the cells, as well as their binding affinities. Surface plasmon resonance analysis revealed equilibrium affinities in the pico- to nanomolar ranges for all proteins except CBD006, which is due to an internal truncation. Rapid multiplexed detection and differentiation of Listeria strains in mixed bacterial cultures was possible by combining CBDs of different binding specificities with fluorescent markers of various colors. In addition, cells of different Listeria strains could be recovered from artificially contaminated milk or cheese by CBD-based magnetic separation by using broad-range CBDP40 and subsequently identified after incubation with two differently colored CBD fusion proteins of higher specificity.

A bacteriophage endolysin-based electrochemical impedance biosensor for the rapid detection of Listeria cells

The objective of this study was to develop a biosensor using the cell wall binding domain (CBD) of bacteriophage-encoded peptidoglycan hydrolases (endolysin) immobilized on a gold screen printed electrode (SPE) and subsequent electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) for a rapid and specific detection of Listeria cells. The endolysin was amine-coupled to SPEs using EDC/NHS chemistry. The CBD-based electrode was used to capture and detect the Listeria innocua serovar 6b from pure culture and 2% artificially contaminated milk. In our study, the endolysin functionalized SPEs have been characterized using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The integration of endolysin-based recognition for specific bacteria and EIS can be used for direct and rapid detection of Listeria cells with high specificity against non-Listeria cells with a limit of detection of 1.1 × 10(4) and 10(5) CFU mL(-1) in pure culture and 2% milk, respectively.

Evolutionarily distinct bacteriophage endolysins featuring conserved peptidoglycan cleavage sites protect mice from MRSA infection

OBJECTIVES In the light of increasing drug resistance in Staphylococcus aureus, bacteriophage endolysins [peptidoglycan hydrolases (PGHs)] have been suggested as promising antimicrobial agents. The aim of this study was to determine the antimicrobial activity of nine enzymes representing unique homology groups within a diverse class of staphylococcal PGHs. METHODS PGHs were recombinantly expressed, purified and tested for staphylolytic activity in multiple in vitro assays (zymogram, turbidity reduction assay and plate lysis) and against a comprehensive set of strains (S. aureus and CoNS). PGH cut sites in the staphylococcal peptidoglycan were determined by biochemical assays (Park-Johnson and Ghuysen procedures) and MS analysis. The enzymes were tested for their ability to eradicate static S. aureus biofilms and compared for their efficacy against systemic MRSA infection in a mouse model. RESULTS Despite similar modular architectures and unexpectedly conserved cleavage sites in the peptidoglycan (conferred by evolutionarily divergent catalytic domains), the enzymes displayed varying degrees of in vitro lytic activity against numerous staphylococcal strains, including cell surface mutants and drug-resistant strains, and proved effective against static biofilms. In a mouse model of systemic MRSA infection, six PGHs provided 100% protection from death, with animals being free of clinical signs at the end of the experiment. CONCLUSIONS Our results corroborate the high potential of PGHs for treatment of S. aureus infections and reveal unique antimicrobial and biochemical properties of the different enzymes, suggesting a high diversity of potential applications despite highly conserved peptidoglycan target sites.

Evaluation of Paramagnetic Beads Coated with Recombinant Listeria Phage Endolysin–Derived Cell-Wall-Binding Domain Proteins for Separation of Listeria monocytogenes from Raw Milk in Combination with Culture-Based and Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction–Based Quantification

The aim of this study was to evaluate a fast and simple bead-based method using paramagnetic beads covered with recombinant Listeria phage endolysin-derived cell-wall-binding domain proteins specific for Listeria spp. for separation of the foodborne pathogen Listeria monocytogenes from artificially contaminated raw milk. The method was combined with subsequent detection and quantification by the traditional plate-count technique and real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). To account for differences in cell properties, recovery rates and the detection limit were determined using five different L. monocytogenes strains for preparation of a 10-fold dilution series in raw milk, spanning an 8-log scale. Two independent test series were performed for each strain, yielding mean recovery rates of 46.6% to 122.8% for detection with the plate-count method, and 64.7% to 95.1% for detection by real-time PCR. A high correlation was found between the number of L. monocytogenes added to the samples and the number of colony forming units recovered by plate count (0.980), as well as the number of bacterial cell equivalents obtained by real-time quantitative PCR (0.987). The detection limit of the combined cell-wall-binding domain proteins/real-time PCR approach ranged from 10(2) to 10(3) colony forming units per milliliter, which is close to the theoretical detection limit of the method.

Biochemical and biophysical characterization of PlyGRCS, a bacteriophage endolysin active against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus

The increasing rate of resistance of pathogenic bacteria, such as Staphylococcus aureus, to classical antibiotics has driven research toward identification of other means to fight infectious disease. One particularly viable option is the use of bacteriophage-encoded peptidoglycan hydrolases, called endolysins or enzybiotics. These enzymes lyse the bacterial cell wall upon direct contact, are not inhibited by traditional antibiotic resistance mechanisms, and have already shown great promise in the areas of food safety, human health, and veterinary science. We have identified and characterized an endolysin, PlyGRCS, which displays dose-dependent antimicrobial activity against both planktonic and biofilm S. aureus, including methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA). The spectrum of lytic activity for this enzyme includes all S. aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis strains tested, but not other Gram-positive pathogens. The contributions of the PlyGRCS putative catalytic and cell wall binding domains were investigated through deletion analysis. The cysteine, histidine-dependent amidohydrolase/peptidase (CHAP) catalytic domain displayed activity by itself, though reduced, indicating the necessity of the binding domain for full activity. In contrast, the SH3_5 binding domain lacked activity but was shown to interact directly with the staphylococcal cell wall via fluorescent microscopy. Site-directed mutagenesis studies determined that the active site residues in the CHAP catalytic domain were C29 and H92, and its catalytic functionality required calcium as a co-factor. Finally, biochemical assays coupled with mass spectrometry analysis determined that PlyGRCS displays both N-acetylmuramoyl-l-alanine amidase and d-alanyl-glycyl endopeptidase hydrolytic activities despite possessing only a single catalytic domain. These results indicate that PlyGRCS has the potential to become a revolutionary therapeutic option to combat bacterial infections.

Nonstable Staphylococcus aureus Small-Colony Variants Are Induced by Low pH and Sensitized to Antimicrobial Therapy by Phagolysosomal Alkalinization

BACKGROUND Staphylococcus aureus-infected patients treated with antibiotics that are effective in vitro often experience relapse of infection because the bacteria hide in privileged locations. These locations include abscesses and host cells, which contain low-pH compartments and are sites from which nonstable S. aureus small-colony variants (SCVs) are frequently recovered. METHODS We assessed the effect of low pH on S. aureus colony phenotype and bacterial growth, using in vitro and in vivo models of long-term infection. RESULTS We showed that low pH induced nonstable SCVs and nonreplicating persisters that are capable of regrowth. Within host cells, S. aureus was located in phagolysosomes, a low-pH compartment. Therapeutic neutralization of phagolysosomal pH with ammonium chloride, bafilomycin A1, or the antimalaria drug chloroquine reduced SCVs in infected host cells. In a systemic mouse infection model, treatment with chloroquine also reduced SCVs. CONCLUSIONS Our results show that the acidic environment favors formation of nonstable SCVs, which reflect the SCVs found in clinics. They also provide evidence that treatment with alkalinizing agents, together with antibiotics, may provide a novel translational strategy for eradicating persisting intracellular reservoirs of staphylococci. This approach may also be extended to other intracellular bacteria.

Novel Giant Siphovirus from Bacillus anthracis Features Unusual Genome Characteristics

Here we present vB_BanS-Tsamsa, a novel temperate phage isolated from Bacillus anthracis, the agent responsible for anthrax infections in wildlife, livestock and humans. Tsamsa phage is a giant siphovirus (order Caudovirales), featuring a long, flexible and non-contractile tail of 440 nm (not including baseplate structure) and an isometric head of 82 nm in diameter. We induced Tsamsa phage in samples from two different carcass sites in Etosha National Park, Namibia. The Tsamsa phage genome is the largest sequenced Bacillus siphovirus, containing 168,876 bp and 272 ORFs. The genome features an integrase/recombinase enzyme, indicative of a temperate lifestyle. Among bacterial strains tested, the phage infected only certain members of the Bacillus cereus sensu lato group (B. anthracis, B. cereus and B. thuringiensis) and exhibited moderate specificity for B. anthracis. Tsamsa lysed seven out of 25 B. cereus strains, two out of five B. thuringiensis strains and six out of seven B. anthracis strains tested. It did not lyse B. anthracis PAK-1, an atypical strain that is also resistant to both gamma phage and cherry phage. The Tsamsa endolysin features a broader lytic spectrum than the phage host range, indicating possible use of the enzyme in Bacillus biocontrol.

Inducible Clostridium perfringens bacteriophages ΦS9 and ΦS63: Different genome structures and a fully functional sigK intervening element.

Two inducible temperate bacteriophages ΦS9 and ΦS63 from Clostridium perfringens were sequenced and analyzed. Isometric heads and long non-contractile tails classify ΦS9 and ΦS63 in the Siphoviridae family, and their genomes consist of 39,457 bp (ΦS9) and 33,609 bp (ΦS63) linear dsDNA, respectively. ΦS63 has 3′-overlapping cohesive genome ends, whereas ΦS9 is the first Clostridium phage featuring an experimentally proven terminally redundant and circularly permuted genome. A total of 50 and 43 coding sequences were predicted for ΦS9 and ΦS63, respectively, organized into 6 distinct lifestyle-associated modules typical for temperate Siphoviruses. Putative functions could be assigned to 26 gene products of ΦS9, and to 25 of ΦS63. The ΦS9 attB attachment and insertion site is located in a non-coding region upstream of a putative phosphorylase gene. Interestingly, ΦS63 integrates into the 3′ part of sigK in C. perfringens, and represents the first functional skin-element-like phage described for this genus. With respect to possible effects of lysogeny, we did not obtain evidence that ΦS9 may influence sporulation of a lysogenized host. In contrast, interruption of sigK, a sporulation associated gene in various bacteria, by the ΦS63 prophage insertion is more likely to affect sporulation of its carrier.

Identification of Peptidoglycan Hydrolase Constructs with Synergistic Staphylolytic Activity in Cow's Milk

ABSTRACT Peptidoglycan hydrolases (PGHs) have been suggested as novel therapeutics for the treatment of bovine mastitis. However, activity in the presence of cows milk is an important requirement for drugs administered into the bovine udder. We have screened a library of >170 recombinant PGHs, including engineered bacteriophage endolysins, for enzymes with activity against Staphylococcus aureus in milk, using a microtiter plate-based protocol. Nine suitable PGH constructs were identified by this approach and further compared in time-kill assays for their efficacy against S. aureus in heat-treated milk. The three most active enzymes (lysostaphin, Ami2638A, and CHAPK_CWT-LST) reduced S. aureus in milk to undetectable numbers within minutes at nanomolar concentrations. Due to their different peptidoglycan cleavage sites, these PGH constructs revealed synergistic activity in most combinations, as demonstrated by checkerboard assays, spot assays, and time-kill experiments. Furthermore, they proved active against a selection of staphylococcal mastitis isolates from different geographical regions when applied individually or in synergistic combination. The most effective PGH combination completely eradicated S. aureus from milk, with no more bacteria being detected within 24 h after addition of the enzymes, corresponding to a reduction of >9 log units compared to the control. Efficacy was also retained at different inoculum levels (3 versus 6 log CFU/ml) and when S. aureus was grown in milk as opposed to broth prior to the experiments. In raw cows milk, CHAPK_CWT-LST showed reduced efficacy, whereas both Ami2638A and lysostaphin retained their activity, reducing bacterial numbers by >3.5 log units within 3 h. IMPORTANCE Staphylococci and S. aureus in particular are a major cause of bovine mastitis, an inflammation of the mammary gland in cows associated with high costs and risks for consumers of milk products. S. aureus-induced mastitis, commonly treated by intramammary infusion of antibiotics, is characterized by low cure rates and increasing antibiotic resistance in bacteria. Therefore, alternative treatment options are highly desirable. PGHs, including bacteriophage endolysins, rapidly and specifically kill selected pathogens by degrading their cell wall and are refractory to resistance development, therefore holding promise as novel antibacterial agents. This study employed a screening approach to identify PGH constructs with high staphylolytic activity in cows milk within a large collection of enzymes. Our results suggest that the most promising enzymes identified by this strategy hold potential as novel mastitis therapeutics and support their further characterization in animal models.

PCR quantification of SiO2 particle uptake in cells in the ppb and ppm range via silica encapsulated DNA barcodes

There is a strong interest in studying the cellular uptake of silica nanoparticles, particularly at medically relevant concentrations (ppb-ppm range) to understand their toxicology. At present, uptake analysis at these exposure levels is impeded by the high silica background concentration. Here we describe the use of DNA encapsulated within silica particles as a tool to quantify silica nanoparticles in in vitro cell-uptake experiments at low concentrations (down to 10 fg cell(-1)).