G. Clare Wenger

Social isolation and loneliness in old age : review and model refinement.

This paper reviews the empirical literature on social isolation and loneliness and identifies a wide range of published correlates. Using data from a study conducted in North Wales, which included many of the same correlated variables, a statistical modelling technique is used to refine models of isolation and loneliness by controlling for co-variance. The resulting models indicate that the critical factors for isolation are: marital status, network type and social class; and, for loneliness: network type, household composition and health.

Social networks and the prediction of elderly people at risk

Abstract The relationship between social support and risk has been well-documented. This paper presents a typology of support networks found amongst older people living in the community. The distinguishing features of five different types of networks are described and a risk profile for each network type is presented. It is shown that different networks have different strengths and weaknesses and that the nature of potential risks is related to the type of support network. Further, the paper addresses the significance of the identification of support network for practice, decision making and intervention with particular reference to: social isolation, hospital discharge, admissions to residential care and mental illness.

A network typology: From theory to practice

Abstract Based on a longitudinal study of aging in rural communities in North Wales, the article describes the development of a typology of the informal support networks of elderly people based on qualitative data from an intensive study and subsequent operationalization for use in a large sample longitudinal survey (N = 534 at 77). Relationships with demographic variables and service use are described and policy implications identified. Network type was found to be highly predictive of service use and availability of informal support. The development of the typology as a practice tool for workers in community care is discussed.

Myths and realities of ageing in rural Britain

Ageing in rural areas has received less attention in the literature than the proportions of older people living in rural areas might suggest. This paper looks at rural ageing in the United Kingdom based on the existing literature and on research in country areas in which the author has been involved. It examines some of the common myths about ageing in rural communities and explores these in terms of their accuracy when compared with the reality of the situation of older people in these areas. The realities of rural lifestyles, family and community networks, life satisfaction, health and access to services are briefly discussed. It is concluded that ageing in rural Britain has advantages and disadvantages but that it is conclusively neither better nor worse than ageing in urban areas. However, it is suggested that rural service provision demands a different approach from that which is appropriate in urban areas.

Parent child relations among very old parents in Wales and the United States: A test of modernization theory

Abstract This study contrasts the structure of parent-child relationships of older parents living in Wales, U.K. with those of older parents living in the United States. Specifically, we examine whether the principal dimensions of intergenerational solidarity and their associations with each other, are invariant across two national cultures. Comparable measures are assessed from the responses of older parents participating in three surveys: Bangor Longitudinal Study of Ageing (N = 139), USC Longitudinal Study of Generations (N = 129) and AARP Study of Intergenerational Linkages (N = 102). Overall, there were fewer differences than expected among the samples. Although proximity and contact with adult children were higher among older parents in the Wales sample, there were no appreciable differences in emotional closeness and receipt of help. However, there was a significantly higher correspondence between proximity and emotional closeness among Welsh parents than among both samples of American parents, suggesting that parents in North Wales forge more intimate ties with local children. Moreover, older Welsh parents were more likely than older parents in the American samples to receive help from children who were both proximate and emotionally close. The results are interpreted in terms of the greater importance that neolocality plays in promoting inter generational integration within more traditional cultures and more rural societies.

Elderly Carers: the Need for Appropriate Intervention

The literature on caring and carers has tended to emphasise the care of aged parents by middle-aged daughters. A recent government survey, however, has drawn attention to the fact that a substantial proportion of all carers are themselves elderly. This paper focuses on elderly carers. It shows that at least a third of elderly people can expect to become carers during retirement. Elderly carers differ from younger carers in that they: care for shorter periods; are more likely to provide intimate personal care and heavy nursing tasks associated with terminal care; and to be caring for their most significant other, usually a spouse. It is suggested that elderly carers represent a sub-group of carers with special needs not necessarily met by present service provision. Some more appropriate interventions are suggested.

How important is parenthood? Childlessness and support in old age in England

Familial relationships are popularly and sociologically viewed as crucial to the social support of elderly people, and of these the relationships between adult children and their parents are generally regarded as the most important (Finch and Mason 1993). But could these expectations be part of a cultural myth? In actuality, does the distinction between parenthood and childlessness make much difference to social support in old age? The present paper addresses this question. Using data from Liverpool, it compares the support networks of older people in three categories: parents (nearly always married); those who married but remained childless; and those who did not marry and remained childless. Its principal finding is that childlessness has a negative impact on support network strength only for single men and for married women. This suggests that youthful investment in a lasting marriage incurs high social opportunity costs for women in old age, unless offset by the survival of children. The findings have implications for the evaluation of social policies that are based on the expectation that individual female family members, in the context of a male-breadwinner family, will provide ‘caring’ for dependent persons. Such provision of care may incur diminished receipt of care for some women in old age.

Review of findings on support networks of older Europeans.

This paper reviews findings on the support networks of older Europeans,compares methodological approaches to the study of support networks anddraws together information on their contacts with family, friends andneighbours; sources of help and support; variations in network structure;and network dynamics. The paper is based on review of the literatureand unpublished work with which the author is familiar. It emphasises:recent network research; approaches which look at networks as entities; andlongitudinal work which draws attention to process. The aim of the paperis to give an overview of findings, to identify national similarities anddifferences and to suggest new directions of investigation.This paper reviews findings on the support networks of older Europeans, compares methodological approaches to the study of support networks and draws together information on their contacts with family, friends and neighbours; sources of help and support; variations in network structure; and network dynamics. The paper is based on review of the literature and unpublished work with which the author is familiar. It emphasises: recent network research; approaches which look at networks as entities; and longitudinal work which draws attention to process. The aim of the paper is to give an overview of findings, to identify national similarities and differences and to suggest new directions of investigation.

The special role of friends and neighbors

Abstract The role of friends and neighbors in old age have received less emphasis than those of family relationships. This article draws attention to their special importance in the lives of elderly people 75 and older living in a community in rural Wales. The author draws attention to the differences and similarities between the two categories: friendship based on choice and shared interest being primarily an expressive relationship; while neighboring is based on proximity and is primarily an instrumental relationship. Both friends and neighbors are shown to provide important, overlapping types of support and assistance which contribute to continuing well-being and independence in old age.

Differences over time in older people’s relationships with children, grandchildren, nieces and nephews in rural North Wales

Based on data from the Bangor Longitudinal Study of Ageing (BLSA) 1979–1999, this paper examines changes over time in the intergenerational relationships of older people (aged 65+ in 1979). The analysis uses quantitative and qualitative data to discuss changes from 1979–1999 for those respondents who survived in the community to 1999. It looks at mothers’ and fathers’ relationships with their adult children, grandmother and grandfather relationships with grandchildren and relationships between aunts and uncles with nieces and nephews. It identifies four different patterns of intergenerational relationships showing how the rural employment structure impacts on family structure, migration and support patterns.