G.L. Allee

Amino acid digestibility and energy concentration in a novel source of high-protein distillers dried grains and their effects on growth performance of pigs

Three experiments were conducted to evaluate a novel source of high-protein distillers dried grains produced by Buhler Inc. (HP-DDG(Buhler)) and fed to growing pigs. The standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of AA in HP-DDG(Buhler) and in soybean meal (SBM) was determined in Exp. 1. Nine pigs (109.8 +/- 2.78 kg of BW) were fitted with a T-cannula in the distal ileum and allotted to a triplicated 3 x 3 Latin square design with 3 diets and 3 periods per square. Diets containing HP-DDG(Buhler) or SBM as the only source of AA and an N-free diet were formulated. The SID of indispensable AA was less (P < 0.01) in HP-DDG(Buhler) than in SBM (Arg, 87.5 vs. 93.9%; His, 76.7 vs. 88.7%; Ile, 76.4 vs. 87.5%; Leu, 77.8 vs. 86.8%; Lys, 75.4 vs. 88.4%; Met, 82.8 vs. 88.4%; Phe, 77.9 vs. 87.3%; Thr, 72.5 vs. 83.5%; Trp, 85.1 vs. 91.0%; Val, 73.3 vs. 84.3%). The DE and ME in HP-DDG(Buhler) and in corn were measured in Exp. 2 using 16 growing barrows (24.6 +/- 1.66 kg of BW). A corn-based diet and a diet containing 50% corn and 48.2% HP-DDG(Buhler) were formulated. The total collection method and the difference procedures were used. The concentrations of DE and ME in HP-DDG(Buhler) were greater (P < 0.001) than in corn (5,043 vs. 4,002 kcal/kg of DM and 4,690 vs. 3,921 kcal/kg of DM, respectively). Experiment 3 was a 9-wk growth assay using 40 pigs (initial BW: 58.2 +/- 2.28 kg) allotted to 5 dietary treatments, with 8 replicates of individually housed pigs per treatment. Treatments included a control diet based on corn and SBM and 4 diets in which HP-DDG(Buhler) replaced 33, 66, 66, or 100% of the SBM in the control diet. All HP-DDG(Buhler) diets contained supplemental Lys and Thr to provide similar concentrations of SID Lys and Thr in all diets; one of the diets in which HP-DDG(Buhler) replaced 66% of the SBM and the diet in which HP-DDG(Buhler) replaced 100% of the SBM also contained crystalline Trp. Dietary treatments had no effect on ADG (1.15, 1.13, 1.16, 1.12, and 1.14 kg), ADFI (3.33, 3.35, 3.39, 3.30, and 3.33 kg), or G:F (0.35, 0.34, 0.34, 0.34, and 0.34 kg/kg). Carcass traits of pigs fed the diet in which HP-DDG(Buhler) replaced 100% of the SBM were not different from those of pigs fed the control diet. In conclusion, HP-DDG(Buhler) contains more DE and ME than corn, but has decreased SID values for AA compared with SBM. Soybean meal can be replaced by HP-DDG(Buhler) in diets fed to finishing pigs without any effect on growth performance or carcass characteristics, provided that diets are adequate in indispensable AA.

The influence of diets containing either conventional corn, conventional corn with choice white grease, high oil corn, or high oil high oleic corn on belly/bacon quality

The objectives of this study were to evaluate diets possessing different fatty acid profiles (as influenced by corn type) with regard to fatty acid profile and firmness of pork bellies. Crossbred barrows (n=196) were fed one of four corn-based diets consisting of conventional corn (CONV), CONV with choice white grease (CWG), high oil corn (HOC), or high oleic, high oil corn (HOHOC). Following 98 days on test, two animals representing the average pen weight (118 kg) were selected for harvest (n=56). A 50-g fat sample was removed from each belly for fatty acid profile analysis. Lateral and vertical flex tests were performed to determine belly firmness. Bellies were pumped and cooked according to a commercial protocol. Total saturated fatty acids increased (P<0.001) and total unsaturated fatty acids decreased (P<0.05) when CWG was added to the CONV diet or when HOC or HOHOC were substituted for CONV corn. Pigs fed CONV corn had firmer bellies, while those fed HOC were softer. No differences were observed across treatment for percentage pump retention, smokehouse yield, or slicing yield (P>0.05). Based on the results of this study, corn type influences fatty acid profile, and belly firmness, but does not affect pump retention, or slicing yields.

Effect of menhaden fish oil supplementation and lipopolysaccharide exposure on nursery pigs ☆: II. Effects on the immune axis when fed simple or complex diets containing no spray-dried plasma

A trial using 64 weanling pigs (TR4 x PIC C22) was conducted to determine the effects of menhaden fish oil supplementation and diet complexity on performance and immune response of nursery pigs. Pigs (17 days and 6.27+/-1.16 kg) were weaned into a segregated early wean facility and given free access to a complex diet for 7 days post-weaning. At day 0 (day 7 post-weaning), pigs were blocked by weight and allotted to 64 pens. Treatments (Trt) were arranged as a 2 x 2 x 2 factorial arrangement. Main effects included diet (complex versus simple), oil (menhaden fish (MFO) versus corn (CO)), and immunogen (saline versus lipopolysaccharide (LPS)). Experimental diets contained 6% oil (6% CO or 5% MFO+1% CO) and were fed for 14 days. On day 12, i.v. injections of either LPS (150 microg/kg) or saline were given, followed by blood collection at 30 min intervals for 6h. After the immune challenge (day 14), pigs were placed onto a common corn-soybean meal fortified diet and growth performance was evaluated until termination of the study (day 28). Pigs were weighed and feed intakes recorded at 7, 14, and 28 days. Prior to immune challenge (day 12), there were differences in BW for pigs fed complex versus simple diets (P<0.01; 13.1 and 12.1 kg, respectively) and pigs fed CO versus MFO diets (P<0.05; 12.9 and 12.3 kg, respectively). During the challenge period, for pigs treated with LPS there was a Time x Immunogen x Oil effect (P<0.001) for serum cortisol with MFO fed pigs having lower serum cortisol as compared to CO fed pigs. Also, during the challenge period, for pigs treated with LPS there was a Time x Diet x Immunogen x Oil effect (P<0.001) for serum tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) with pigs fed complex diets supplemented with CO having higher serum TNF-alpha as compared with pigs fed complex diets supplemented with MFO. At days 14 and 28, LPS-treated pigs had lower BW than saline injected controls (P<0.001 and 0.01, respectively). In addition, pigs fed simplified diets continued to have lower BW after challenge compared to pigs fed a complex diet. Interestingly, there were no differences (P>0.10) in BW after challenge in pigs fed MFO. This study suggests that MFO supplementation alters the immune response during LPS challenge and that simplified diets may compromise nursery performance.

Effect of menhaden fish oil supplementation and lipopolysaccharide exposure on nursery pigs. I. Effects on the immune axis when fed diets containing spray-dried plasma.

The objective of the present study was to evaluate the potential immunological benefit of adding menhaden fish oil to the diet of weaned pigs. Twenty-four crossbred male pigs were weaned at approximately 18 days of age and placed on a complex nursery diet containing 30% lactose and 7% plasma protein with 6% corn oil as the fat source (Cont, n=12) or with 5% menhaden fish oil and 1% corn oil as the fat source (MFO, n=12) for a period of 15 days. Body weights did not differ (P>0.78) between dietary groups either at the beginning or end of the 15 days feeding period. On day 15, all pigs were non-surgically fitted with an indwelling jugular catheter. On d 16, pigs received an i.v. injection of either saline (n=6/dietary group) or lipopolysaccharide (LPS; 150 microg/kg body weight; n=6/dietary group) and blood samples were collected at 30 min intervals for a period of 5h. Serum was harvested and stored at -80 degrees C for analysis of cortisol (CS), corticosteroid-binding globulin (CBG), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma). There was no significant effect of diet on basal concentrations (Time 0) of any of the blood parameters analyzed. A Time x Treatment x Diet interaction (P<0.03) was observed for serum CS such that those pigs which consumed the MFO diet followed by LPS treatment had a reduced CS response as compared to the LPS-treated pigs on the Cont diet. A Time x Treatment interaction (P<0.01) was observed for serum CBG such that LPS treatment reduced circulating CBG as compared to the saline-treated pigs. Time x Treatment x Diet interactions were also observed for serum concentrations of TNF-alpha (P=0.084) and IFN-gamma (P=0.022) such that both the TNF-alpha and IFN-gamma response to the LPS challenge was lower in those pigs receiving the MFO diet as compared to the LPS-treated pigs on the Cont diet. Overall, serum CS was negatively correlated with the CBG response (r=-0.40, P<0.001), however, the strongest negative correlation was observed in the LPS-treated pigs which consumed the MFO diet (r=-0.63, P<0.001). While further studies are needed to evaluate the immunological response of including MFO in the nursery pig diet, the present study demonstrates that supplementation with MFO does indeed alter the immunological response to an LPS challenge.

Fresh meat and further processing characteristics of ham muscles from finishing pigs fed ractopamine hydrochloride.

Ractopamine hydrochloride (RAC) has consistently led to an advantage in carcass cutting yields of finishing pigs and remains a common feed additive in US finishing pig diets. Less is known about the effect of RAC on further processing characteristics. Some researchers have reported advantages in ultimate pH of the LM in pigs fed RAC. If a greater ultimate pH was also observed in hams, the increased pH could affect further processing characteristics and lead to better protein interaction and improved textural properties. The objective of this experiment was to determine if RAC-fed pigs yielded hams with a greater ultimate pH, and if so, whether or not that advantage improves textural properties and water retention of further processed hams. Two hundred hams from barrows and gilts fed RAC or control diets were selected based on HCW. Hams were fabricated into 5 separate pieces to determine cutting yields, and 6 muscles were evaluated for ultimate pH. Hams were processed to make cured and smoked hams. Ractopamine increased cutting yields of the whole ham (P < 0.0001), inside (P < 0.01), outside (P < 0.01), and knuckle (P < 0.01) when expressed as a percentage of chilled side weight. Ultimate pH of the rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, and semitendinosus were all 0.06 pH units greater (P < 0.05), the biceps femoris was 0.04 pH units greater (P = 0.02), and the semimembranosus and adductor muscles were 0.03 pH units greater in pigs fed 7.4 mg/kg of RAC when compared with control pigs. Cured hams from RAC-fed pigs were heavier at all stages of production. No differences were detected in binding strengths (P = 0.88) or protein fat-free values (P = 0.13) between RAC (9.06 kg and 20.37) and control hams (9.01 kg and 20.13). Ractopamine increased cutting yields, total weight of cured hams, and ultimate muscle pH. Ractopamine can be fed to pigs to achieve the desired growth characteristic advantages and cutting yields without affecting further processed ham characteristics.

Net energy of soybean oil and choice white grease in diets fed to growing and finishing pigs

The objectives of this experiment were 1) to determine the NE of soybean oil (SBO) and choice white grease (CWG) fed to growing and finishing pigs, 2) to evaluate the effects of inclusion rate of SBO on the NE by growing and finishing pigs, and 3) to determine if there is a difference in the NE of SBO and CWG between growing and finishing pigs. Forty-eight growing (initial BW: 22.13 ± 1.78 kg) and 48 finishing (initial BW: 84.17 ± 5.80 kg) barrows were used, and they were housed and fed individually. Within each stage of growth, pigs were allotted to 8 outcome groups of 6 barrows based on BW. Within each outcome group, pigs were randomly allotted to 1 of 6 groups. Two groups at each stage of growth served as an initial slaughter group. Pigs in the remaining groups were assigned to 4 dietary treatments and slaughtered at the conclusion of the experiment. The basal diet contained corn, soybean meal, and no supplemental lipids. Three additional diets were formulated by mixing 95% of the basal diet and 5% SBO, 90% of the basal diet and 10% SBO, or 90% of the basal diet and 10% CWG. Average daily gain and G:F for finishing pigs and apparent total tract digestibility of energy for growing and finishing pigs increased (linear, P < 0.05) with lipid content, but was not affected by lipid source. The lipid gain:protein gain ratio and the energy retention also increased (linear, P ≤ 0.05) with lipid content in growing and finishing pigs. There were no interactive effects between lipid content and stage of growth or between lipid source and stage of growth on the NE of diets and the NE of dietary lipids. The NE of diets increased (linear, P < 0.01) with increasing SBO (2,056, 2,206, and 2,318 kcal/kg for diets containing 0, 5, or 10% SBO). The NE of the diet containing 10% CWG (2,440 kcal/kg) was greater (P < 0.05) than the NE of the diet containing 10% SBO. The NE of diets was greater (P < 0.05) for finishing pigs than for growing pigs regardless of lipid content or source. The NE of SBO included at 5% (5,073 kcal/kg) was not different from the NE of SBO included at 10% (4,679 kcal/kg), but the NE of CWG (5,900 kcal/kg) was greater (P < 0.05) than the NE of SBO. The stage of growth had no impact on the NE of SBO or CWG. In conclusion, the NE of lipids is not affected by the content of dietary lipids, but the NE of CWG is greater than the NE of SBO.

Effects of dietary soybean hulls and wheat middlings on body composition, nutrient and energy retention, and the net energy of diets and ingredients fed to growing and finishing pigs.

The objectives of this experiment were 1) to determine the effect of dietary soybean hulls (SBH) and wheat middlings (WM) on body composition, nutrient and energy retention, and the NE of diets and ingredients fed to growing or finishing pigs and 2) to determine if finishing pigs use the energy in SBH and WM more efficiently than growing pigs. Forty growing barrows (initial BW: 25.4 ± 0.7 kg) and 40 finishing barrows (initial BW: 84.8 ± 0.9 kg) were randomly allotted to 5 groups within each stage of growth. Two groups at each stage of growth served as the initial slaughter group. The remaining pigs were randomly assigned to 3 dietary treatments and harvested at the conclusion of the experiment. The basal diet was based on corn and soybean meal and was formulated to be adequate in all nutrients. Two additional diets were formulated by mixing 70% of the basal diet and 30% SBH or 30% WM. In the growing phase, ADG, G:F, and retention of lipids were greater (P < 0.05) for pigs fed the basal diet than for pigs fed the diets containing SBH or WM. Retention of energy was also greater (P < 0.05) for pigs fed the basal diet than for pigs fed the SBH. In the finishing phase, pigs fed the SBH diet tended (P = 0.10) to have a greater ADG than pigs fed the WM diet, and energy retention was greater (P < 0.05) for pigs fed the basal diet than for pigs fed the WM diet. The NE of the basal diet fed to growing pigs was greater (P < 0.01) than the NE of the diets containing SBH or WM, and there was a tendency for a greater (P = 0.05) NE of the basal diet than of the other diets when fed to finishing pigs. The NE of SBH did not differ from the NE of WM in either growing or finishing pigs, and there was no interaction between ingredients and stage of growth on the NE of diets or ingredients. The NE of diets for growing pigs (1,668 kcal/kg) was not different from the NE of diets for finishing pigs (1,823 kcal/kg), and the NE of the diets containing SBH (1,688 kcal/kg) was not different from the NE of the diets containing WM (1,803 kcal/kg). Likewise, the NE of SBH (603 kcal/kg) did not differ from the NE of WM (987 kcal/kg). In conclusion, inclusion of 30% SBH or WM decreases the performance and nutrient retention in growing pigs but has little impact on finishing pigs. The NE of the diets decreases with the inclusion of SBH and WM, but the NE of diets and ingredients is not affected by the BW of pigs. The NE of SBH is not different from the NE of WM.

The effect of corn distiller's dried grains with solubles, ractopamine, and conjugated linoleic acid on the carcass performance, meat quality, and shelf-life characteristics of fresh pork following three different storage methods.

The objective of this study was to evaluate dietary corn distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS), ractopamine hydrochloride (RAC), and conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) on growth performance, carcass and fat quality, and shelf-life of fresh pork from finishing pigs. Barrows (n=72) were fed one of eight treatments consisting of two diet sources (corn-soy and corn-soy+20% DDGS), two levels of RAC (0 and 7.4ppm), and two levels of CLA (0 and 0.6%) for 28days. Loins were portioned (n=3) into one of three storage conditions (fresh, cold, frozen); each followed with seven days of retail display. Feeding RAC improved ADG and G:F (P<0.05), whereas DDGS decreased belly fat firmness (P<0.05). Dietary DDGS increased total polyunsaturated fatty acids in jowl and belly samples and increased Iodine Value (IV) (P<0.05), but addition of CLA decreased IV. Dietary DDGS, RAC, or CLA had minimal impact on pork quality following varied storage methods.

Effects of dietary soybean oil on pig growth performance, retention of protein, lipids, and energy, and the net energy of corn in diets fed to growing or finishing pigs

The objectives of this experiment were 1) to determine if dietary soybean oil (SBO) affects the NE of corn when fed to growing or finishing pigs, 2) to determine if possible effects of dietary SBO on the NE of corn differ between growing and finishing pigs, and 3) to determine effects of SBO on pig growth performance and retention of energy, protein, and lipids. Forty-eight growing (initial BW: 27.3 ± 2.5 kg) and 48 finishing (initial BW: 86.0 ± 3.0 kg) barrows were used, and within each stage of growth, pigs were allotted to 1 of 6 groups. Two groups at each stage of growth served as an initial slaughter group. The remaining 4 groups were randomly assigned to 4 dietary treatments and pigs in these groups were harvested at the conclusion of the experiment. A low-lipid basal diet containing corn, soybean meal, and no added SBO and a high-lipid basal diet containing corn, soybean meal, and 8% SBO were formulated at each stage of growth. Two additional diets at each stage of growth were formulated by mixing 25% corn and 75% of the low-lipid basal diet or 25% corn and 75% of the high-lipid basal diet. Results indicated that addition of SBO had no effects on growth performance, carcass composition, or retention of energy, protein, and lipids but increased (P < 0.05) apparent total tract digestibility of acid hydrolyzed ether extract and GE. Addition of SBO also increased (P < 0.05) DE and NE of diets, but had no effect on the DE and NE of corn. Finishing pigs had greater (P < 0.05) growth performance and retention of energy, protein, and lipids than growing pigs. A greater (P < 0.05) DE and NE of diets was observed for finishing pigs than for growing pigs and the DE and NE of corn was also greater (P < 0.05) for finishing pigs than for growing pigs. In conclusion, addition of SBO increases the DE and NE of diets but has no impact on the DE and NE of corn. Diets fed to finishing pigs have greater DE and NE values than diets fed to growing pigs and the DE and NE of corn are greater for finishing pigs than for growing pigs.

Impact of ractopamine hydrochloride on growth, efficiency, and carcass traits of finishing pigs in a three-phase marketing strategy

The objectives were to determine the effects of ractopamine hydrochloride (RAC) in a 3-phase marketing strategy. One thousand seven hundred forty pigs were used in 80 single-sex pens in 2 blocks. Each pen housed approximately 22 pigs. Sixteen percent of the total population of pigs was sold during the first marketing period, 18% was sold during the second marketing period, and the remaining 66% was sold during the third marketing period. Data were analyzed as a randomized complete block design of 2 treatments. Pigs in the second marketing group had greater growth performance indicators than pigs in the first marketing group. Over the entire feeding period, pigs fed RAC were 2.73 kg heavier (P < 0.0001), had 0.11 kg/d greater (P < 0.0001) ADG, and had 0.04 greater (P < 0.0001) G:F than pigs not fed RAC. Hot carcass weights were 3.3% greater (P < 0.0001), carcass yields were 0.68 (% units) greater (P < 0.0001), fat depth was 7.2% less (P < 0.0001), loin depth was 5.6% greater (P < 0.0001), and estimated carcass lean was 0.97% units greater (P < 0.0001) in RAC-fed pigs when compared with pigs not fed RAC. By the end of the first marketing period carcasses from pigs fed RAC (89.73 kg) were 2.1% heavier (P = 0.04) and gained 0.19 kg/d more (P = 0.03) carcass weight than carcasses from pigs not fed RAC (87.89 kg). By the end of the second marketing period carcasses from pigs fed RAC (99.00 kg) were 3.1% heavier (P < 0.001) and gained 0.14 kg/d more (P < 0.001) carcass weight than carcasses from pigs not fed RAC (96.02 kg). By the end of the third marketing period carcasses from pigs fed RAC (102.75 kg) were 3.7% heavier (P < 0.0001) and gained 0.10 kg/d more (P < 0.0001) carcass weight than carcasses from pigs not fed RAC (99.06 kg). Although carcass gain per day decreased with extended RAC feeding duration, HCW advantages continued to increase as feeding duration was increased from 7 d to 35 d. Growth benefits were evident during the initial marketing period, but as duration increased differences diminished. Therefore, RAC can provide the expected growth performance benefits when included in the diet for up to 21 d, but HCW advantages continue to increase throughout the entire 35 d feeding period. Even though carcass benefits were not as evident in pigs sold during the first marketing period, advantages (particularly HCW) continued to increase with each marketing period.