G. Lawrence Zahn

Face-to-Face Communication in an Office Setting The Effects of Position, Proximity, and Exposure

The effects of hierarchical relationships and physical arrangements on face-to-face communication in an office environment were investigated. Mutual exposure, physical distance between offices, chain-of-command distance, and status distance were compared as predictors of communication time. A path model was developed using exposure as a mediating variable between the distance measures and communication time. Exposure was a sufficient predictor of communication. Chain of command, status, and office distance all related to exposure, with chain-of-command distance having the strongest association with exposure. Distance between offices was primarily associated with chain-of-command distance, with status distance having a smaller but significant effect. Results suggest ways in which organizations might manage exposure in order to influence face-to-face communication.

Cooperative learning and classroom climate

Abstract The impact of two cooperative learning techniques, Student Teams-Achievement Divisions and Teams-Games-Tournaments, on classroom climate among students was compared to a traditional whole-class format. Thirty-five student teachers were randomly assigned to one of the three classroom structures. Their pupils were 864 second-through sixth-grade students, including 288 non-Anglo (black and Mexican American) students. A new measure of classroom climate, the Classroom Attitudes Scale, was developed that produced two attitude factors: Social Relations and School-work Cooperative techniques generally produced a slightly more favorable climate on both dimensions, and especially for females on Social Relations. Of the cooperative methods, Teams-Games-Tournament produced a significantly more favorable climate for Anglo-American students. The results support the conclusion that choice of classroom structure can bias classroom climate in favor of or against different ethnic groups.

Cognitive integration of verbal and vocal information in spoken sentences

Abstract The problem of interpreting messages that contain both verbal and vocal information is similar to the problem of information integration in impression formation, clinical judgment, and decision-making. While the linear model has proven powerful in many experimental studies, the double bind theory and literature on incongruent communication suggest that configural effects should occur, particularly in the processing of inconsistent messages. Four models of the integration process were evaluated for short spoken sentences. Results confirmed the superiority of the linear model, but individual differences were observed. Evidence was found that inconsistent sentences are processed differently than consistent sentences, but the effects of inconsistency are not reflected in a multiplicative component. Comparison of this task with other information integration tasks is presented. Problems with methodologies for evaluating vocal information are presented, and implications of the results for the double bind theory are discussed.

Leadership and the art of cycle maintenance: A simulation model of superior—subordinate interaction

Abstract The leadership process is defined by the behaviors and messages exchanged by superiors and subordinates in the task and relationship domains. The behaviors are described and arranged in a series of cycles representing recurring patterns of transactions. A Markov model is then used to simulate behavior of different types of superior—subordinate relationships, illustrating the effects of tendencies such as risk-taking and defensiveness and the impact of closeness of supervision. Results support the usefulness of the model and highlight the mutual influence of superior and subordinate on the leadership process. Implications for testing the model and applications to selection and training are discussed.

Symmetry and the Illusion of Control as Bases for Cooperative Behavior

The existence of cooperation in the face of temptation to free ride requires explanation. We discuss two psychological phenomena, ‘symmetry’ and ‘the illusion of control,’ which we believe underlie the ‘what if everyone acted that way’ type of reasoning used in some types of cooperation. We provide a simple model of how these lead to cooperation. We also show how some bizarre causal beliefs, such as effect preceding cause, can follow from these phenomena. We look at some existing evidence for these phenomena and report on our studies which support the model.

Verbal-vocal integration as a function of sex and methodology

Abstract The process by which persons appear to combine content and intonation to form an impression of a speakers friendliness may be a function of sex and the analytical techniques used to evaluate the models. Sixty subjects (half male, half female) from the campus population were asked to rate the content, tone, and total message of short sentences from male speakers. Analysis of variance and regression analysis were used to evaluate Linear, Multiplicative, Minimum, and Maximum models. Responses were essentially linear, although the multiplicative component was significant in some results, and the Minimum model received some support for males. More weight was given to tone than content, especially by females and for inconsistent messages. Idiographic analysis proved superior to normative analysis, and the ignored content method provided greater reliability and explanation than previously used filtered speech.

Cultural Differences in Individualism? Just Artifact.

Previous research has provided discrepant findings with regard to the presence or absence of a cultural difference in strength of individualistic motivation among Mexican American and Anglo American children. To test the hypothesis of a cultural difference, and to explore the nature of different individualism measures, two individualism measures were administered to 733 Anglo American, Mexican American, and black children. Results indicated age but not cultural differences in strength of individualistic motivation, and that one measure of individualism, the Social Orientation Choice-Card, is confounded with competitiveness. That artifact remains the most plausible explanation of what was presumed to be a cultural difference.

Generalized Maternal Reinforcement and Children's Reading Achievement, Math Achievement, and Field Independence

Summary The relation of maternal reinforcement variables to childrens reading and math achievement and field independence was tested among 39 semirural low income Anglo-American mothers and their 7- to 9-year-old children. Maternal reward, punishment, and contingency generalized significantly across two novel behavioral tasks, and were more related to childrens verbal than quantitative abilities. For all children, reading ability was associated with a rewarding, nonpunitive, noncontingent mother. Math ability was not related to maternal reward, but was related to a nonpunitive, non-contingent mother for boys. Results support previous research indicating different antecedents of verbal and quantitative abilities and previously documented sex differences in the effect of maternal reinforcement variables.