G. Yu. Sotnikova

Limiting sensitivity of photodetectors based on A3B5 photodiodes for middle infrared range

The noise of photodetectors based on mid-IR A3B5 photodiodes (PhDs) implemented in a transimpedance amplifier scheme is analyzed. Recommendations concerning the choice of amplifier elements depending on the dynamic resistance of PhDs are given. It is shown that, using modern low-noise amplifiers, it is possible to reach a potential limiting threshold sensitivity of photodetectors only using PhDs with dynamic resistances above 50 Ω.

Relaxer ferroelectrics as promising materials for IR detectors

The dielectric and pyroelectric properties of a typical relaxer ferroelectric, 0.9PbMg1/3Nb2/3O3-0.1PbTiO3 (PMN-PT), are studied experimentally. Based on the results obtained, the pyroelectric constant and figure of merit of the material when used in IR detectors are calculated. These parameters are presented as a function of temperature and external electric field. The current and voltage sensitivities and the detectivity of PMN-PT-based IR detectors are evaluated. They are compared with the same properties of pyroelectric detectors and dielectric bolometers that use traditional pyroelectric materials as the active element and also of other uncooled photodetectors.

Pyrometer unit for GaAs substrate temperature control in an MBE system

An optical pyrometer designed for precision measurement of the GaAs substrate temperature during MBE growth is considered. The pyrometer can be calibrated against a certain characteristic absolute temperature that is visually determined from a change in the RHEED pattern. This enables one to calculate the absolute temperature of the substrate with regard to its radiant emissivity and minimize the inaccuracy of radiation temperature measurement. The inaccuracy is associated with the deposition of growth products on the pyrometer window.

Experimental study of cyclic action of plasma on tungsten

We report on experimental results on multiple action of hydrogen, deuterium, and helium plasmas produced by a plasma gun and the Globus-M tokamak on tungsten. The surface temperature in the course of irradiation is measured with a bichromatic pyrometer with a time resolution of ⩾1 μs. The morphology of the surface layer is investigated and X-ray structure analysis of tungsten exposed to multiple radiations by the plasma under various conditions is carried out. A slight decrease in the lattice parameter in the sample subjected to the maximal number of irradiation cycles is detected. It is shown that the morphology of the tungsten surface irradiated by the hydrogen plasma from the gun and by the deuterium plasma from the Globus-M tokamak changes (the structure becomes smoother). The characteristic depth of the layer in which impurities have been accumulated exceeds 0.5 μm. This depth was the largest for the sample exposed to 1000 shots from the gun and 2370 shots from the tokamak. It is shown that the helium jet from the plasma gun makes it possible to simulate the action of helium ions on the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) diverter, producing a layer of submicrometer particles (bubbles).

Effect of low-frequency noise on the threshold sensitivity of middle-IR photodetectors in a broad frequency range

Low-frequency noise of a photodiode-based photodetector (PD) implementing a transimpedance amplifier scheme has been analyzed. It is found that the low-frequency (drift) noise component in the input chains of modern operational amplifiers makes a decisive contribution to resultant noises of PDs based on A3B5 photodiodes at frequencies up to several hundred kilohertz. An illustrative “vector” method of description of the noise characteristics of PD elements is proposed for selecting the optimum type of operational amplifier so as to achieve the final sensitivity and accuracy characteristics at a given response speed.

Simulation of characteristics of optical gas sensors based on diode optopairs operating in the mid-IR spectral range

An analytic model is proposed for an optical gas sensor based on diode optopairs, which takes into account the line spectral structure of gases being analyzed, as well as peculiarities of spectral characteristics of immersion-type light-emitting diodes and photodiodes operating in the mid-IR spectral range. The model makes it possible to calculate the transfer characteristic of the sensor and to estimate the measurement error for gas analyzers operating on the basis of these sensors. The experiments demonstrate bright prospects of application of sensors based on immersion-type diode optopairs in small-size gas analyzers; the expected values of the threshold sensitivity of a CO2 sensor at a level of 10 ppm and the absolute error of measurements below 0.1% (reduced error is 1%) in a range of up to 10 vol % at a speed of up to 10 counts per second exceed the parameters of available portable CO2 gas analyzers. The validity of the model is confirmed by conformity between the calculated data and the experimental results obtained on a prototype of a CO2 diode sensor.

Determining heat-transfer coefficients of solid objects by laser photothermal IR radiometry

A simple method for determining heat-transfer coefficients of solid objects is proposed that is based on direct measurement of the sample surface temperature dynamics. The object is probed by a laser beam with preset temporal variation of the radiation power, and the thermal response is detected by photodiodes operating in the mid-IR spectral range without forced cooling.

The effect of temperature instability on the threshold sensitivity of photodetectors based on AIII–BV photodiodes

The dependence of the sensitivity of photodetectors based on AIII–BV photodiodes on accidental variations of the temperature of its elements is analyzed. It is shown that the temperature drift of the bias level in input circuits of op-amps strongly contributes to the resulting photodetector noise up to frequencies on the order of 1 MHz. To reach the limiting sensitivities of the sensors, it is necessary to stabilize the temperature of not only the photodiode chip, but also the integrated circuit of the first amplifier stage. For most of applications, the required stabilization accuracy does not exceed ±0.1°C. As a result of the analysis, prototype high-sensitivity medium-wavelength (2–5 μm) sensors were developed that operate without forced cooling and have a detection threshold of tens of nanowatts at a detection bandwidth of 0–1 MHz.

Optical-fiber-tip temperature control system for fiber-coupled laser modules in medical equipment

An optical-fiber-tip temperature control device embedded into the power-supply unit of high-power laser diodes and modules (with fiber-optic output) used in medical laser equipment is proposed. As the sensing element, a III–V mid-infrared photodiode developed at the Ioffe Physical-Technical Institute is chosen from the photodiode class whose parameters are optimal for developing multipurpose thermal-radiation detectors (pyrometric sensors). The developed device allows temperature control at the working tip of the optical fiber of the laser “scalpel” in the range of 600–1100°C with an error no worse than 1% for a response time of 1 ms. The device has digital and analog temperature-signal outputs, which can be used to control the laser pump current, thus extending the functionality of medical laser equipment, increasing its efficiency, safety, and service life.

The Electrocaloric Effect in BaTiO 3 –SrTiO 3 Solid Solution

We have studied the electrocaloric effect in 0.68BaTiO3–0.32SrTiO3 solid solution, as well as the dielectric, pyroelectric, and piezoelectric properties of this compound in the vicinity of the first-order phase transition in a bias electric field. The dielectric and electromechanical contributions to the pyroelectric and electrocaloric effects are discussed.