Gabriele Richter

Temperament and character during the course of unipolar depression among inpatients

Abstract Cloninger has developed a novel approach concerning relationships between psychopathological syndromes and personality by his biosocial theory. Increased levels of harm avoidance (HA) were consistently found in unipolar disorders. The present study was conducted to cross-validate, in part, previous findings that high harm avoidance (HA) persisted in the course of disorder and to explore the distinct role of character dimensions. One hundred and twenty-six inpatients with an unipolar depressive disorder and 126 healthy controls, strictly matched for age and gender have been included in the study. Our findings underline that higher harm avoidance among unipolar depressives compared to healthy controls persisted after treatment even if a significant reduction could be observed. Recurrent disorders and comorbidity with anxiety disorders seem to be related to a relatively immature character in terms of consistently lower scores for the character dimensions (e.g. self-directedness and cooperativeness) of the patients classified into these groups both at admission and at discharge compared with their healthy counterparts.

Temperament, Character and Perceived Parental Rearing in Healthy Adults: Two Related Concepts?

The goal of this study was to test for relationships between personality according to Cloninger’s Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI) and perceived parental rearing under consideration of cognitive distortions as confounding variables. Five hundred and forty healthy volunteers completed the TCI, the EMBU questionnaire (assessing perceived parental rearing), and the Dysfunctional Attitude Scale. The data were subjected to Pearson correlations, partial correlations, multiple regression, and factor analyses. Gender-specific relationships were found between parental rearing and both the temperament and the character dimensions. The factor structure of the TCI remained unchanged irrespective of the inclusion of the parental rearing factors. Since environmental factors (e.g., parental rearing) influence both temperament (supposed to be genetically determined) and character dimensions, the focus should be on the interaction between both aspects through the life span.

Zur deutschsprachigen Version des Temperament- und Charakterinventars

Zusammenfassung. Es erfolgt eine kurze zusammenfassende Darstellung des theoretischen Hintergrundes und der Dimensionen des Temperament- und Charakterinventars (TCI). - Die Kennwerte fur die interne Konsistenz anhand einer deutschen Normstichprobe von 509 gesunden Freiwilligen und fur die Stabilitat anhand einer Stichprobe von 75 stationaren Patienten fur den Behandlungsverlauf werden sowohl fur die Dimensionen als auch fur die Subskalen dargestellt. Erste Hinweise auf die Validitat des Verfahrens in deutschen Stichproben werden in Form von Korrelationen mit den Faktoren des EMBU-Fragebogens, einem Verfahren zur Erfassung des erlebten elterlichen Erziehungsverhaltens, berichtet. Die interne Konsistenz fur die Dimensionen “Beharrungsvermogen” und “Belohnungsabhangigkeit” entsprechen noch nicht den Erwartungen. Das Verfahren befindet sich aber international noch in der Entwicklung.

Sibship Size, Sibship Position, Parental Rearing and Psychopathological Manifestations in Adults: Preliminary Analysis

Almost all investigations concerning the relationships between sibship size, sibship position and psychiatric disorders addressed more formal aspects, i.e. frequency and position, with contradictory and inconsistent results. Analyses considering sibship size and birth order as mediating factors between parental rearing and psychopathological manifestations in adults are lacking. The present results of an investigation of 1,013 psychiatric inpatients and 251 healthy volunteers support a systematic association between sibship size and parental rearing, mainly in terms of a reversed relationship between emotional warmth, overprotection and number of siblings. An excess of psychiatric patients in the middle position of a sibling seems to be related to specific unfavourable rearing patterns. A validation of our preliminary results would be required in terms of preventive measures for children of risk populations.

Determinants of recall of parental rearing behavior. The influence of age or loss of parents by separation or death.

In a study of 562 psychiatric inpatients and 251 healthy controls, relationships between age of proband and related life events (divorce of parents, death of a parent) and the perceived parental rearing have been investigated. The inverse relationships obtained could be explained by the higher number of divorced parents among younger subjects with negatively experienced parental rearing practices on the one hand and an idealization of the parents who had died on the other hand. In psychiatric patients these relationships and differences were more pronounced pointing to the importance of parental rearing as a vulnerability factor for mental problems during adulthood. The necessity to control for age in studies of perceived parental rearing became obvious by the present results.

Depression, perceived parental rearing and self-acceptance

Psychoanalytical, behavioural and cognitive theories assume a continuous process in the development of self-acceptance as an important psychological variable by parent-child interaction during childhood and adolescence. The objective of the present study was to investigate the relationships between perceived parental rearing behaviour and self-acceptance in psychiatric inpatients. The results of extreme group comparisons pointed to the reciprocal discriminative power of parental rearing factors and self-acceptance scores, supporting the hypothesis of a continuous process in the development of self-acceptance and mood traits. Perceived parental rearing predicted aspects of psychopathology in adulthood. The effects of maternal and paternal behaviour appeared to be gender-specific. Alternative interpretations of these findings are discussed.

Perceived Parental Rearing and State versus Trait Aspects of Adult Depression

In a pilot study of 72 psychiatric inpatients, relationships between state versus trait aspects of depression and perceived parental rearing have been investigated. It appeared that trait aspects (assessed by the mood scale of the Giessen test) yielded the most frequent and highest correlations with the factors rejection, emotional warmth and overprotection of the EMBU (Egna Minnen av Barndoms Uppfostran--My Memories of Upbringing) questionnaire of parental rearing. Particularly rejecting maternal rearing behaviour during childhood seems to constitute a risk factor for the development of trait depression during adulthood.

Parental rearing behaviour, family atmosphere and adult depression : a pilot study with psychiatric inpatients

In a sample of 72 depressed inpatients the relationships between severity of depression, emotional family atmosphere and perceived parental rearing were studied at admission, discharge and follow‐up. The results indicate that paternal rejection and overprotection might be of particular importance for developing social skills used to form close relationships, whereas maternal emotional warmth seems to have a preventive effect by promoting emotional stability.

Social relationships reflected by depressive inpatients.

ABSTRACT— In a study of 100 inpatients suffering from depressive symptoms, the influence of cognitive characteristics (negative automatic thoughts and dysfunctional attitudes) and of the severity of depression on the emotional reflections of social relationships were investigated at admission, discharge and 3 months follow‐up. The reflections of strained relation and rejection in the family or partnership were significantly determined by negative cognitive patterns and severity of depression. The prognostic aspects of the assessed psychological characteristics and the psycho‐therapeutic implications of the results are discussed.

Confounding Variables Affecting the Relationship Between Emotional Family Atmosphere and Perceived Parental Rearing Behaviour in Adult Depressive Inpatients: A Cross‐Validation Study

In a series of 151 psychiatric inpatients of various diagnoses, the relationships between severity of depression, emotional family atmosphere and perceived parental rearing were investigated at admission and discharge for each of the sexes. Significant correlations between perceived parental rearing characteristics and the present family atmosphere were yielded. Particularly in males were the EMBU factors of parental rejection and emotional warmth closely related to the present family atmosphere factors of acceptance, emotional closeness, and relaxed relations. Only in the female subsample were the correlations between parental rejection and both emotional family atmosphere factors (strained versus relaxed relations and rejection versus acceptance/emotional closeness) consistently significant. Possible explanations for the gender differences are discussed. The results verify the findings from a previous study.