Gail Richmond

Making meaning in classrooms: Social processes in small‐group discourse and scientific knowledge building

This study analyzed student talk in working groups during four laboratory investigations. Its purpose was to understand the process by which students solve scientific problems, the difficulties students encounter in developing the requisite pieces of scientific arguments while negotiating their social roles, and the ways these roles shape task engagement and the development and articulation of the arguments themselves. The discourse of 6 groups of four students each was audiotaped and 2 groups were videotaped during the planning, execution, and interpretation of student-designed experiments in a 10th-grade interdisciplinary science class. Goals of student engagement, knowledge building within an intellectual framework, and construction of scientific arguments were used to examine conceptual difficulties and social interactions. Within-group comparisons across labs and across-group comparisons within labs were made. It was determined that: (a) students became much better at using the scientific method to construct convincing arguments, and (b) specific social roles and leadership styles developed within groups that greatly influenced the ease with which students developed scientific understanding. The results demonstrate not only that knowledge building involves the construction of scientifically appropriate arguments, but that the extent to which this knowledge building takes place depends on students learning to use tools of the scientific community: their expectations about the intellectual nature of the tasks and their role in carrying these tasks out: and the access they have to the appropriate social context in which to practice developing skills.

Grooming in Norway Rats: the Development and Adult Expression of a Complex Motor Pattern

In two experiments detailed observations and quantitative analyses were made of the development and adult expression of grooming in laboratory rats. In the first experiment, 5 litters of rat pups were observed each day from 0-28 days of age, and grooming movements were recorded on paper. Forepaw wipes of the nose appeared by Day 3, followed by eye wipes (Day 6) and ear wipes (Day 8). These movements were integrated into normal-appearing head grooming on Day 11. The mouth was used to groom posterior portions of the body beginning on Day 14 with the belly, and continuing subsequently with hip (Day 15), back (Day 18), and the anogenital region and tail (Day 20). Thus, these aspects of grooming followed a general cephalocaudal progression. In contrast, the development of scratching of the head and body, which began on Day 6, did not follow a systematic order. In the second experiment, 5 adult male rats were observed in glass aquaria, which also served as their living compartments, and bouts of grooming were recorded on videotape for later analysis. Sequential and spatial characteristics of movements were determined by replaying the videotapes in slow motion, while temporal characteristics were determined by a frame-by-frarne analysis of the tapes. This experiment revealed a cephalocaudal progression of acts within bouts of grooming: grooming usually began with the paw-lick- nose-wipe sequence and progressed from there to eye wipes and ear wipes. Mouthing of the torso followed, usually beginning with more anterior portions and terminating with more posterior portions. Scratching with the hindpaws was unpredictably interpolated into the grooming sequence. The experiment also revealed that transitions between grooming different parts of the body were predictable from the spatial and temporal characteristics of the grooming. That is, the last stroke in chains of nose, eye, or ear wipes was reliably slower than previous strokes in the chain, and also tended to be incomplete. Thus, the order in which grooming of specific body areas emerges during early development follows an anterior-posterior progression, and this progression closely parallels the sequence in which body areas are groomed by adult rats. Furthermore, in adults these movements obey specific temporal and spatial rules which can be used to predict transitions of grooming from one body area to the next. This parallel between the ontogenetic and adult expressions of grooming may reflect, respectively, the maturation and activation of genotypically determined, functional units in the central nervous system. In addition, theories now being applied to the problem of transitions between different motive systems (e.g., eating and drinking), may be extended to account for transitions within a motive system (e.g., from grooming of one part of the body to the next).

University/school partnerships: Bridging the culture gap

across the nation, calls for the formation of partnerships among university and school professionals are prominent. If the list of participants responsible for drafting reform blueprints in science is any indication, partnership building has become a vehicle for massive restructuring of curriculum at all precollege levels, as well as for the professional development of teachers (see, for example, AAAS, 1993; NAS, 1996; NSTA, 1992). Arguments for the development of partnerships in science abound (e.g., Gabel, 1995; Loucks-Horsley et al., 1989). The most common rationale goes something like this: In order for significant and longlasting change to take hold in the way science is taught in schools, there must be substantial interaction between those with knowledge of scientific content and those with knowledge of students and schools. On the face of it, such an argument seems right and sensible. I admit to being a great fan; indeed, for the past 4 years I have been involved in collaborative teaching and research in high school science classrooms. In the pages that follow, I relate my story as a scientist who has willingly, even enthusiastically, been drawn into school-based collaborations of the

Evidence for involvement of midbrain central gray in cholinergic mediation of female sexual receptivity in rats.

Experiments were designed to determine the role of the midbrain central gray (MCG) in facilitation of lordosis by cholinergic agonists. In Experiment 1, estradiol-treated female rats received microinjections of carbachol into the MCG and showed a dose-related behavioral facilitation to the agonist. In Experiment 2, MCG injections of oxotremorine (OXO), a selective muscarinic receptor agonist, yielded a dose-related facilitation; this was blocked by systemic pretreatment with scopolamine (SCOP), a muscarinic antagonist. In Experiment 3, MCG-lesion animals were injected unilaterally with OXO intraventricularly following contralateral injection of SCOP or vehicle. Females with MCG damage displayed significantly less facilitation than sham-lesion animals. Pretreatment with SCOP abolished lordosis facilitation in both groups. In addition, after treatment with estradiol and progesterone, sham-lesion females showed more receptivity than MCG-lesion females. Systemic injection of SCOP produced a significant decline in lordosis for both groups. On the basis of these data, it is suggested that the MCG plays an important role in the cholinergic mediation of female sexual receptivity.

Cholinergic mediation of feminine sexual receptivity: Demonstration of progesterone independence using a progestin receptor antagonist

Feminine sexual receptivity can be elicited by the intracerebral administration of muscarinic cholinergic substances in ovariectomized female rats treated with small amounts of estrogen. These experiments were designed to investigate whether this facilitative cholinergic mechanism is dependent upon progesterone. In the first experiment, estrogen-primed animals were injected with RU 38486, a progestin receptor antagonist, 1 h before progesterone or vehicle injection. Injection of RU and progesterone on Day 1 of testing produced animals which were sexually unreceptive. Furthermore, injection of the antagonist without concomitant progesterone produced animals which were unresponsive to progesterone given 24 h later. Thus, RU 38486 itself may be binding to progestin receptors in critical brain regions, preventing progesterone from binding to these same receptors. In Experiment 2, animals made sexually unreceptive by treatment with RU 38486 subsequently became receptive when injected intracerebrally with oxotremorine, a muscarinic agonist. Therefore, activation of progestin receptors does not appear necessary for the cholinergic mediation of sexual receptivity. As in Experiment 1, animals receiving progesterone on Day 1 showed a diminished response to a second progesterone injection 24 h later; an even greater decrease in this response was observed in animals that also received the antagonist on Day 1.

Tobacco Advertising in Gender-Oriented Popular Magazines

The number and content of tobacco advertisements were examined in seventy-four gender-oriented popular magazines published during the summer of 1988. More ads were present in womens than mens magazines, and the messages contained in these ads were differentially stressed as a function of the magazines primary readership. The type of Surgeon Generals warning appearing in an ad often was not directed toward the typical concerns of the readership of the magazine in which the ad appeared. This survey, and a follow-up three months later, indicated that the Surgeon Generals report on nicotine addiction, published in the Spring of 1988, had no apparent effect on the number of ads placed. Advertising revenues received by publishers from conglomerates which control the manufacture of food as well as tobacco products may be partially responsible for this finding. It was concluded that effective drug education programs should encourage skepticism when tobacco advertisements are examined.

Ventromedial hypothalamic lesions and cholinergic control of female sexual behavior

Ovariectomized female rats received bilateral electrolytic or sham lesions of the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus (VMNH). They were tested for sexual receptivity in response to estrogen (EB) and progesterone (P) treatment. Following this they were treated with a small dose of EB and tested for their response to intraventricular microinjection of a muscarinic cholinergic agonist or a vehicle solution. Those animals with lesions involving almost the entire extent of the VMNH displayed an impaired response to EB and P and to the agonist. Lesions which spared 30-50% of the anterior portion of the VMNH did not result in an impairment to EB and P or to the agonist. It is suggested that the disruption of the cholinergic induction of receptivity by such lesions was due either to destruction of estrogen receptors located in cell bodies in the VMNH which send projections to extrahypothalamic cholinergic neurons or to estrogen- and cholinergic-responsive cells intrinsic to the VMNH which are critical for the expression of sexual receptivity.

Teacher Education and Teaching in the Present Political Landscape: Promoting Educational Equity Through Critical Inquiry and Research

The U.S. educational enterprise lacks no shortage of debate around divisive issues. Two recent events remind us of this. In October of 2016, the U.S. Department of Education released its revised regulations for teacher preparation programs, which have a heavy emphasis on using P-12 student success as a measure of quality for teacher education programs. (1) While some individuals and organizations have praised the federal government for pushing increased accountability on teacher preparation programs, many others have expressed strong opposition to the suggested ways to do so. For example, the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education (AACTE) joined approximately 35 groups (including P-12, higher education, state governments, among others) in expressing formal concerns about the new regulations via a formal written statement. (2) In addition, the national climate has been negatively affected by the aftermath of the 2016 U.S. presidential election and illuminates a heightened sense of vulnerability and alienation for members of certain social groups; these sentiments are realized for many individuals in our nations teacher education programs and P-12 schools. The campaign season brought rhetoric that perpetuated racism, sexism, misogyny, xenophobia, religious discrimination, homophobia, and ableism, and the aftermath permeates every formal institution in the nation. Continual discourse and behavior promoting bigotry has been evidenced in various forms most prominently in schools post-election. According to the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC), K-12 schools across the United States have been fertile ground for hate crimes and acts of violence against people of historically and traditionally marginalized groups (e.g., people identifying as immigrants, Muslims, African Americans, or lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender [LGBT]). In the first five weeks following the election, approximately 1,100 incidents were documented by the SPLC (Southern Poverty Law Center, 2016). The introduction of the new federal regulations for teacher preparation programs and the national divide caused by the presidential election are two major recent events that highlight the potentially costly ramifications of a new sociopolitical climate for teacher education and public education, and challenge each of us to consider what will be required to effectively prepare and support teachers and achieve educational equity for all children in the coming years. Regardless of ones political affiliation, this is a national sociopolitical climate in which we all must exist; however, our existence does not have to be defined by this climate. In our field of teacher education, the emerging educational landscape could have dramatic impacts on professional learning, research, and advocacy as we prepare current and future educators to help P-12 students learn and participate in an increasingly divisive society and help these students develop the ability to make informed decisions about issues that affect their lives and the lives of others in their local community and perhaps globally. The current and emerging sociopolitical climate compels us as teacher educators and teacher education researchers to more closely link our roles and identities as researchers and activists; our activism can be grounded in research, and our research occurs in sociopolitical contexts. Thus, it is incumbent upon us to consider how we prepare teachers in ways that reflect what we already know from research about high-quality preparation and which also prepares them to be advocates and activists for their preparation and subsequent work in P-12 schools. This sociopolitical climate presents an equity imperative that is focused on active resistance against policy directives at all levels (e.g., federal, state, local) that result in exacerbated gaps in access to opportunities to pursue a teaching career, teach with adequate support in a variety of schools, and learn in affirming and supportive environments. …

Developing and sustaining an educative mentoring model of STEM teacher professional development through collaborative partnership

Abstract In this paper, we present details of a partnership undertaken by four universities with field-based, alternative STEM teacher preparation programs and a large urban school district to provide ongoing professional support for teachers serving as mentors for individuals preparing for careers in high-poverty schools. We also present key findings related to our implementation of an educative mentoring professional learning community (PLC) as a professional development (PD) model for these mentors. Our analysis reveals that mentors as well as candidates identified the PD program as addressing their specific interests and concerns, and that they were regularly and deeply engaged with key activities that were part of each session’s agenda. These findings signal how key elements of PD workshops can contribute to creating and sustaining a local but replicable PLC utilizing an educative mentoring model to support mentors and the future teachers whom they support.

Core Teaching Practices: Addressing Both Social Justice and Academic Subject Matter:

The recognition that knowledge alone is insufficient as a foundation for effective teaching has led in recent years to a call for significant and programmatic investment in the support of teaching practices which will support the learning of students (Ball & Forzani, 2011; Grossman et al., 2009; McDonald, Kazemi, & Kavanagh, 2013). While a focus on “core,” “high leverage,” or “ambitious” teaching practices is instructive (see, for example, the works of Lampert et al., 2013; Windschitl, Thompson, & Braaten, 2011), much less attention has been paid toward how educators might be more inclusive with respect to such practices. Indeed, it could be claimed that the focus on core practices has been at the cost of attention to practices that are powerful in their capacity to support learning by helping students feel connected to the spaces where learning is taking place, to ideas or principles that lie at the heart of a discipline, and to their own developing identities as learners. These practices arise from a commitment to value the cultural backgrounds of learners and to not only leverage but to highlight culturally bound lived experiences. They also collectively reflect what Gloria Ladson-Billings proposed as culturally relevant pedagogy (Ladson-Billings, 1995), a concept which Django Paris has more recently expanded to culturally sustaining pedagogy, a pedagogy that “ . . . seeks to perpetuate and foster—to sustain—linguistic, literate, and cultural pluralism as part of the democratic project of schooling” (Paris, 2012, p. 95). The work highlighted in the articles in this issue of Journal of Teacher Education (JTE) all speak to the importance of these inclusive practices as they are supported and shaped in different contexts, from our university teacher preparation classrooms to classrooms in K-12 schools. The Native American community has worked with states like Washington and Oregon to create curriculum materials relevant to American Indian/Alaskan Native students (AI/ AN). Such materials are primarily aimed at giving students an understanding of history and society that more accurately reflects events as seen from the perspective of Native populations. Less has been done to produce materials that combine core teaching practices in reading, mathematics, and science with pedagogical practices that take account of cultural differences between AI/AN students and those from other cultural groups. Similarly, professional development for teachers working with Native students often focuses on making connections to families and communities, rather than exploring how core teaching practices can link to teaching students from a variety of cultures. The article by Vincent, Tobin, and Van Ryzin in this issue draws on the National Indian Education Study (NIES) to describe the extent to which AI/AN students experienced reading and mathematics instruction that integrates Native Language and Culture (NLC) into instruction. The NIES also permitted the authors to describe how many AI/AN students were taught by teachers who had taken advantage of opportunities to learn ways to integrate NLC into their teaching. Because the NIES is done as part of the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), it supports inferences that are nationally representative. The authors found that more than half of AI/AN students in the United States are taught by teachers who have taken advantage of NLC-oriented professional development less than 3 times in the past 2 years. The most common experience for AI/AN students is that their teacher integrates material related to AI/AN issues only once during the year, perhaps as part of a holiday lesson, rather than as a regular part of reading or mathematics instruction. Students in schools with high concentration of AI/AN students were more likely to experience the curricular integration, as were those whose teachers were themselves AI/AN or fluent in AI/AN language. Further analysis of such nationally representative data, for AI/AN and other cultural groups, will provide a baseline picture of the current connections—or the extent of disconnect—between core practices and culturally relevant pedagogy in both professional development and teaching practice. The article by Greg Vass, also in this issue, reminds us that what is critical is not only how much and how integrated elements of culturally responsive or sustaining teaching practices are in our teacher preparation programs; the actual implementation of such practices is shaped in significant ways by interactions with the experienced teachers with whom our candidates work, even when those candidates are 732950 JTEXXX10.1177/0022487117732950Journal of Teacher EducationRichmond et al. editorial2017