Gareth R. Sheppard

High Density Scaffolding of Functional Polymer Brushes: Surface Initiated Atom Transfer Radical Polymerization of Active Esters

In this Article, we describe a method for the polymerization of active esters based on N-hydroxysuccinimide 4-vinyl benzoate (NHS4VB) using surface initiated atom transfer radical polymerization (SI-ATRP). Poly(NHS4VB) brushes have high grafting density and a uniform and smooth morphology, and film thickness increases linearly with reaction time. Block copolymer brushes with 2-hydroxyethyl acrylate, tert-butyl acrylate, and styrene were synthesized from surface bound poly(NHS4VB) macroinitiators. The active ester brushes show rapid and quantitative conversion under aminolysis conditions with primary amines, which was studied using grazing incidence attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared (GATR-FTIR) and UV-vis spectroscopy. UV-vis was also used to quantify the amount of reactive groups in polymer brush layers of differing thickness. Functionalization of the active ester pendant groups with chromophores containing primary amines showed a linear correlation between the amount of chromophore incorporated into the brush layer and brush thickness. Grafting densities as high as 25.7 nmol/cm(2) were observed for a 50 nm brush. Block copolymer brushes with buried active ester functional moieties also undergo quantitative conversion with primary amines as confirmed by GATR-FTIR. We discuss the potential of activated ester brushes as universal scaffolds for sensor and microarray surfaces, where the twofold control of functionalizable active ester polymer and block copolymers provides well-ordered, tunable microenvironments.

Surface-confined nickel mediated cross-coupling reactions: characterization of initiator environment in Kumada catalyst-transfer polycondensation.

Kumada catalyst-transfer polycondensation (KCTP) has proven to be an excellent strategy toward the synthesis of well-defined conjugated polymers. In this report, Ni(0) species are reacted with surface-bound aryl bromides to yield KCTP initiators of structure (aryl)Ni(II)-Br. Surface-confined Kumada reactions are carried out with a ferrocene functionalized Grignard reagent to quantify initiator coverage, ligand exchange, and Kumada reaction kinetics. In addition, surface-initiated Kumada catalyst-transfer polycondensation (SI-KCTP) is carried out from the fabricated initiators to modify SiO(2) and ITO surfaces. Uniform poly(3-methylthiophene) films with thicknesses between 40 and 65 nm were characterized using a variety of spectroscopic and electrochemical techniques.

Palladium‐Mediated Surface‐Initiated Kumada Catalyst Polycondensation: A Facile Route Towards Oriented Conjugated Polymers

Palladium-mediated surface-initiated Kumada catalyst transfer polycondensation is used to generate poly(3-methyl thiophene) films with controlled thickness up to 100 nm. The palladium initiator density is measured using cyclic voltammetry and a ferrocene-capping agent, where the surface density is found to be 55% (1.1 × 10(14) molecules per cm(2)). UV-Vis spectroscopy and AFM show increased aggregation in palladium-initiated films due to the higher grafting density of palladium initiators on the surface. The anisotropy of the P3MT films is determined using polarized UV-Vis spectroscopy, which indicates a degree of orientation perpendicular to the substrate. Evidence that palladium can maintain π-complexation even at elevated temperatures, is also shown through the exclusive intramolecular coupling of both a phenyl and thiophene-based magnesium bromide with different dihaloarenes.

Fabrication of spiropyran-containing thin film sensors used for the simultaneous identification of multiple metal ions.

In this article, a methacrylate-based spiropyran-containing copolymer was used as a colorimetric sensor to identify multiple metal ions simultaneously. Through UV-vis absorption spectroscopy, the relative binding affinity of merocyanine to each metal ion was investigated by displacement studies of a bound metal ion with a second metal ion of a higher binding affinity. We also show that because each metal ion gives rise to a distinct spectral response, partial least-squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) can be used to analyze the UV-vis absorbance spectra to identify the two metal ions that are present in solution at varying concentrations simply by dipping a coated polymer substrate into solution after irradiation. Partial least-squares regression analysis (PLS) was used to determine the metal ions in solution for several binary mixtures quantitatively. We also demonstrate that the quantitative determination depends on the relative binding preference of merocyanine to each metal ion.

π-Complexation in Nickel-Catalyzed Cross-Coupling Reactions

The kinetic isotope effect (KIE) is used to experimentally elucidate the first irreversible step in oxidative addition reactions of a zerovalent nickel catalyst to a set of haloarene substrates. Halogenated o-methylbenzene, dimethoxybenzene, and thiophene derivatives undergo intramolecular oxidative addition through irreversible π-complexation. Density functional theory computations at the B3LYP-D3/TZ2P-LANL2TZ(f)-LANL08d level predict η(2)-bound π-complexes are generally stable relative to a solvated catalyst plus free substrate and that ring-walking of the Ni(0) catalyst and intramolecular oxidative addition are facile in these intermediates.

Tuning chelating groups and comonomers in spiropyran-containing copolymer thin films for color-specific metal ion binding

Photochromic molecules can be used to selectively bind divalent metal ions. In order to study the influence of increased chelation in spiropyran-containing copolymers, we synthesized two derivatives: spiropyran methacrylate (SPMA) and spiropyran methacrylate with a methoxy substituent in the 8′ position of the benzopyran ring (MEO). Additionally, the comonomer with which spiropyran was polymerized is also varied between methyl methacrylate (MMA) and 2,2,2-trifluoroethyl methacrylate (TFEMA) to tune the colorimetric response. Fourier transform-infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy was used to characterize the photoinduced conversion of spiropyran to merocyanine, as well as the merocyanine–metal ion (MC–M2+) interaction. By means of UV-Vis absorption spectroscopy, we demonstrate that each metal ion gives rise to a unique colorimetric response for the various spiropyran-containing copolymers studied.

Magnetic-Field-Assisted Fabrication and Manipulation of Nonspherical Polymer Particles in Ferrofluid-Based Droplet Microfluidics.

We report a novel magnetic-field-assisted method for the fabrication and manipulation of nonspherical polymer particles within a ferrofluid-based droplet microfluidic device. Shape control and chain assembly of droplets with tunable lengths have been achieved.

Thiolene-based microfluidic flow cells for surface plasmon resonance imaging

Thiolene-based microfluidic devices have been coupled with surface plasmon resonance imaging (SPRI) to provide an integrated platform to study interfacial interactions in both aqueous and organic solutions. In this work, we develop a photolithographic method that interfaces commercially available thiolene resin to gold and glass substrates to generate microfluidic channels with excellent adhesion that leave the underlying sensor surface free from contamination and readily available for surface modification through self-assembly. These devices can sustain high flow rates and have excellent solvent compatibility even with several organic solvents. To demonstrate the versatility of these devices, we have conducted nanomolar detection of streptavidin-biotin interactions using in situ SPRI.

Ferrofluidic platform for cell and droplet manipulation

We report a novel on-chip cell and droplet manipulation scheme using magnetic nanoparticles suspension (i.e., ferrofluids). The design and characterization of a size-based cell-sorting device are presented. Magnetic field-assisted fabrication and manipulation of non-spherical polymer particles within a ferrofluidic droplet device is also presented.