Garry E Richards

Adventure Education and Outward Bound: Out-of-Class Experiences That Make a Lasting Difference

The purpose of this meta-analysis is to examine the effects of adventure programs on a diverse array of outcomes such as self concept, locus of control, and leadership. The meta-analysis was based on 1,728 effect sizes drawn from 151 unique samples from 96 studies, and the average effect size at the end of the programs was .34. In a remarkable contrast to most educational research, these short-term or immediate gains were followed by substantial additional gains between the end of the program and follow-up assessments ( ES = .17). The effect sizes varied substantially according the particular program and outcome and improved as the length of the program and the ages of participants increased. Too little is known, however, about why adventure programs work most effectively.

A short version of the Self Description Questionnaire II: Operationalizing criteria for short-form evaluation with new applications of confirmatory factor analyses

Four studies evaluate the new Self Description Questionnaire II short-form (SDQII-S) that measures 11 dimensions of adolescent self-concept based on responses to 51 of the original 102 SDQII items and demonstrate new statistical strategies to operationalize guidelines for short-form evaluation proposed by G. T. Smith, D. M. McCarthy, and K. G. Anderson (2000). Multiple-group confirmatory factor analyses revealed that the factor structure based on responses to 51 items by a new cross-validation group (n=9,134) was invariant with the factor structures based on responses to the same 51 items and to all 102 items by the original normative archive group (n = 9,187). Reliabilities for the 11 SDQII-S factors were nearly the same and consistently high (.80 to .89) for both groups. Multitrait-multimethod analyses support the internal validity of responses over time. Gender and age effects on the 11 SDQII-S factors were invariant across the archive and cross-validation groups.

Multidimensional Self-Concepts A Long-Term Follow-Up of the Effect of Participation in an Outward Bound Program

Marsh, Richards, and Barnes (1986) examined systematic change and stability in multiple dimensions of self-concept and the effects of participation in a 26-day residential program called Outward Bound. Multidimensional self-concepts measured with the Self Description Questionnaire (SDQ) III increased as a consequence of the intervention and the increases were significantly larger for those facets judged a priori to be more relevant to program goals. For purposes f the present investigation participants from the previous study were asked to complete the SDQ III again, 18 months after completion of the program; and there was little systematic change in the multidimensional self-concepts during the long-term follow-up interval. Coupled with the results of the earlier study and further examination of the psychometric properties of the SDQ III, these findings further support the Outward Bound program as an effective intervention for enhancing self-concept and the construct validity of responses to the SDQ III. The longitudinal study of successful interventions designed to enhance self-concept are rare, and so the findings are important in that they demonstrate that self-concept can be changed through effective intervention and that these effects can be maintained.

Tennessee Self Concept Scale: Reliability, internal structure, and construct validity.

The construct validity of responses to the Tennessee Self Concept Scale (TSCS) was evaluated in two sets of analyses. First, exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, and an analysis of variance model adapted from multitrait-multimethod (MTMM) research, were used to examine the internal structure of the TSCS responses. Second, MTMM analyses were adapted to examine the convergent and discriminant validity of TSCS responses in relation to responses to the Self Description Questionnaire III and to the multidimensional self-concept ratings inferred by external observers. The subjects were 343 participants (aged from 16 to 37 years) in one of 9 Outward Bound courses offered in 1985 or 1986 at the University of Sydney (Australia). One-third of the subjects were full-time students, and most of the others were employed full-time during the year prior to the course. Across all analyses there was consistent support for TSCS family, social, and physical scales, but less consistent support for other TSCS scales. Eight tables are included and a list of 58 references is appended. (Author/TJH) **************************************************** ***** ************** * Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made * * from the original document. * ******************4**************************************************** The Tennessee Self Concept Scale: Reliability, Internal Structure, and Construct Validity Herbert W. Marsh, University of Sydney, Australia Gary E. Richards, Australian Outward Bound School

The Multidimensionality of the Rotter I-E Scale and Its Higher-Order Structure: An Application of Confirmatory Factor Analysis.

Rotter (1966, 1975) concluded that responses to his Internal-External (I-E) scale were unidimensional, or at least that one general factor explained most of the variance in the total score. The purpose of the present investigation is to examine the factorial structure of the original Rotter scale. A review of 20 published factor analyses indicated that the scale is not unidimensional, that not even two or three factors may be able to adequately explain responses to the scale, and that six distinguishable factors have been identified. Confirmatory factor analyses indicated that a five-factor model provided an adequate fit to data from the present investigation, but that alternative models with fewer factors or a simpler structure did not fit the data as well. However, a single higher-order factor was able to explain much of the variance in the lower-order factors and also provided a reasonable fit to the data. Hence, while there is strong evidence against the unidimensionality of the Rotter scale, the findings suggest that the first-order factors do define a single higher-order construct that may represent the generalized IE construct that Rotter originally hypothesized. Nevertheless, the continued reliance of locus of control research on the Rotter scale and on global measures of the construct may be counterproductive.

Does Outdoor Education Really Work? A Summary Of Recent Meta-Analyses

As the empirical literature about the effects of outdoor education grows, it is important that emerging trends are reviewed and the implications for practice discussed. Traditional reviews of the literature have created impressionistic narratives of the research evidence. An alternative approach is to use ‘meta-analysis’ which is a way of combining the outcome statistics from many different studies into a single, overview study. Three meta-analyses of the effects of outdoor education have been conducted (Cason & Gillis, 1994; Hans, 1997; Hattie, Marsh, Neill, & Richards, 1997). Overall these studies, representing over 12,000 participants, show that outdoor education has a small to medium impact on typically measured outcomes such as changes in self-concept, self-confidence and locus of control. These effects seem not only to be retained over time but to increase still further, which is impressive. The most effective programs seem to be longer, involve adult-age participants and to be conducted by some particular organisations. Recommendations are made for more detailed description of how programs are conducted and investigation of the role that individual differences, such as personality and coping styles, have on outcomes. Finally it is argued that more widespread use of ‘educational auditing’ research techniques would help develop program quality.

The Rotter locus of control scale: The comparison of alternative response formats and implications for reliability, validity, and dimensionality

Abstract Participants completed the Rotter internal/external (IE) instrument using three different response formats before and after completion of the Outward Bound program, and were evaluated by external observers at the end of the intervention. Multitrait-multimethod analyses indicated that five specific IE facets identified in previous research were consistently distinguished with each of the response formats. While responses were substantially more internal after the intervention, effect sizes varied with the IE facet and with the response format. Observer responses were significantly correlated with self-responses, and provided additional support for the construct validity of responses to the Rotter instrument and the interpretation of the intervention effect. Nevertheless, problems with the Rotter instrument were identified, and the implications for further research were discussed.

The outward bound bridging course for low-achieving high school males: Effect on academic achievement and multidimensional self-concepts

Abstract The Outward Bound Bridging Course is a six-week residential program designed to improve academic achievement and self-concepts in low-achieving high school males. In the period 1980–1984 five courses were conducted for 66 high school males chosen on the basis of poor academic performance, an apparent potential to perform better and strong parental support. The findings provide support for (a) the effectiveness of the Outward Bound Bridging Course coupled with parental involvement as an academic intervention for low-achieving high school males on both academic achievement and academic self-concept; and (b) the validity of multidimensional self-concept responses to the Self Description Questionnaire in relation to academic performance and in relation to the impact of an effective academic intervention. The short multiple time-series design, the specificity of the effects to academic outcomes and the generality of the effects across academic self-concept and achievement make implausible many possibl...

Self-other agreement and self-other differences on multidimensional self-concept ratings

Abstract The present investigation examines self-other agreement in relation to an intervention previously shown by Marsh, Richards, and Barnes (1986a, 1986b) to enhance self-concept. Subjects completed multidimensional self-concept instruments before and after the completion of Outward Bound courses (self-responses), and made ratings of how other participants “would” respond and “should” respond (observer responses). A multitrait-multimethod analysis demonstrated the convergent and discriminant validity of both self-and observer-responses. Whereas there was little support for the ability of observers to meaningfully differentiate between “would” and “should” responses, “would” responses were somewhat better predictors of self-responses. Consistent with previous research pre/post-intervention differences for self-responses were statistically significant. Observer ratings were more positive than self-responses at either time, and observers indicated that subjects “should” respond more favourably than they ...