Garry L. Martin

Applied research studies with single-subject designs: Why so few?

Abstract In spite of several calls for increased use of single-subject designs for evaluating applied sport psychology interventions, studies using them rarely appear in our major sport psychology journals. On the assumption that some basic misunderstandings concerning these designs may have contributed to their lack of use, the present paper: (a) describes fundamental characteristics of all single-subject designs, (b) attempts to clarify potential misunderstandings concerning these designs, and (c) describes the alternating-treatments design—a strategy for comparing two or more treatments on an ongoing basis within individual athletes.

Experimental Studies of Psychological Interventions With Athletes in Competitions Why So Few

During the past three decades, behavioral practitioners have been applying techniques to improve the performance of athletes. To what extent are interventions, designed to improve the directly and reliably measured performance of athletes in competitions, based on experimental demonstrations of efficacy? That is the question addressed by this review. All issues of three behavioral journals and seven sport psychology journals, from 1972 through 2002, were examined for articles that addressed the above question. Fifteen articles were found that met the inclusion criteria, yielding an average of only one published study every 2 years. This article reviews those articles, discusses reasons for the dearth of research in this area, and makes recommendations for much needed future research.

Randomized Controlled Trial of Cognitive–Behavioral Group Therapy for Irritable Bowel Syndrome in a Medical Setting

Standard medical treatments have not been effective for irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) patients. Though individualized cognitive–behavior therapy is an empirically supported treatment option, cognitive–behavioral group therapy (CBGT) has yet to be established as an effective alternative in a randomized controlled trial. This study compared the efficacy of a 10-session CBGT with a home-based symptom monitoring with weekly telephone contact (SMTC) treatment for IBS, extending previous quasi-experimental research in this area. Twenty-eight refractory IBS patients, evaluated and referred by gastroenterologists using the Rome criteria, participated in the study. IBS symptoms, psychological functioning, and health-related quality of life were assessed pre- and posttreatment, and at 3-month follow-up. CBGT patients reported significantly more gastrointestinal (GI) symptom improvement than SMTC patients on posttreatment global measures and had significantly reduced daily diary pain scores at 3-month follow-up. Based on MANOVA, there was significant improvement in psychological distress and health-related quality of life for the CBGT patients in comparison to the SMTC patients. These improvements were also maintained at the 3-month follow-up. Reductions in GI symptoms, psychological distress, and improved health related quality of life may contribute to less behavioral avoidance, disability, and health care utilization in refractory IBS patients.

Studies using single-subject designs in sport psychology: 30 years of research.

A prominent feature of behavior-analytic research has been the use of single-subject designs. We examined sport psychology journals and behavioral journals published during the past 30 years, and located 40 studies using single-subject designs to assess interventions for enhancing the performance of athletes and coaches. In this paper, we summarize that body of research, discuss its strengths and limitations, and identify areas for future research.

The effects of a goal-setting package on the performance of speed skaters

Abstract The purpose of the study was to assess the effectiveness of a goal-setting package on objective and subjective measures of speed skating performance. Participants were four female skaters ranging in age from 12–17 years. A single-subject design, the multiple baseline across individuals, was used to evaluate the intervention package. One participant remained at baseline for the duration of the study to control for training effects. The results provide support for utilizing a goal-setting package in an athletic setting. During practices, laps and drills completed increased, while off-task behaviors decreased. Racing times obtained in practice and competitions improved for all three experimental participants. A social validity assessment provided further support for the effectiveness of the intervention.

ON THE RELATION BETWEEN REINFORCER EFFICACY AND PREFERENCE

Most research on stimulus preference and reinforcer assessment involves a preference assessment that is followed by a reinforcer assessment. Typically, the most and least preferred stimuli are tested as reinforcers. In the current study, we first quantified the reinforcing efficacies of six food items and then assessed relative preference for each item. Relative preference ranking and reinforcer efficacies showed almost perfect concordance for 1 participant and partial concordance for the other. Discordance tended to occur with the weakest reinforcers.

The hierarchical relationship between several visual and auditory discriminations and three verbal operants among individuals with developmental disabilities.

This study examined the relationship between performance on the Assessment of Basic Leaming Abilities test (ABLA), two auditory matching tasks, and a test of echoics, tacts, and mands with persons with developmental disabilities. It was found that discrimination skill (visual, auditory-visual, and auditoryauditory discriminations) was a better predictor of performance on verbal operant assessments than level of functioning based on diagnosis. The results showed high test-retest reliability for the test of verbal operants and no hierarchical relationship was found among the three verbal operants. The results suggest that the ABLA Level 6 might be a possible bridging task for teaching echoics, tacts, and mands. Further research is needed to ascertain the relation between the auditory matching tasks and the verbal operants.

Attention span: an operant conditioning analysis.

The short attention span of brain damaged and retarded children is often discussed as though it were an absolute and unmanipulable entity. Alternatively, an operant conditioning analysis considers attention span as manipulable and improvable. This approach emphasizes the importance of specifying the behavioral referents of attention span and offers, to those concerned with the education of the mentally retarded, a wide variety of effective behavioral control techniques.

Predicting the Relative Efficacy of Verbal, Pictorial, and Tangible Stimuli for Assessing Preferences of Leisure Activities

We measured the relationships between choice stimulus modalities and three basic discriminations (visual, visual matching-to-sample, and auditory-visual) using the Assessment of Basic Learning Abilities test. Participants were 9 adults who had moderate to profound developmental disabilities. Their most and least preferred leisure activities, identified by prior preference assessments, were presented using choice stimuli in three modalities (tangibles, pictures, and verbal descriptions) in an alternating-treatments design. For 8 of the 9 participants, discrimination skills predicted the selections of choice stimuli associated with their preferred activities. The results suggest that choice stimulus modalities in preference assessment of leisure activities need to be matched to the discrimination skills of persons with developmental disabilities.

A Practical Staff Management Package for Use in a Training Program for Persons with Developmental Disabilities

A staff management package was investigated for increasing and maintaining behavioral training skills of direct-care staff. Behaviors of three direct-care staff members were monitored while they conducted a prevocational program with 27 adult clients with severe or profound mental retardation. The intervention was an easy-to-apply checklist used weekly by a supervisor to give feedback to direct-care staff. The management procedure did not require the supervisorto collect quantitative data to be graphed or charted. Use of the checklist during a weekly morning work session in a multiple-baseline design across subjects led to immediate improvement in staff performance during daily morning work sessions. Considerable generalization of improved staff performance to daily aftermoon work sessions with a different client group occurred. Further increases in staff performance occurred when the management procedure was addedto afternoon work sessions. Staff performance was maintained over 4 months after the managem...