Gary Lewis Willingham
Rohm and Haas
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Science of The Total Environment | 2000
Andrew Jacobson; Gary Lewis Willingham
This article reviews previously reported data on the performance, environmental fate, and environmental modeling of Sea-Nine 211 antifoulant (4,5-dichloro-2-n-octyl-4-isothiazolin-3-one). Since organotins are an industry standard, the environmental fate and environmental modeling results of tributyltin (TBT) are compared to those of the Sea-Nine antifoulant for reference. Laboratory and field tests results have shown Sea-Nine antifoulant to be highly effective. Five years of commercial use has confirmed this. Sea-Nine antifoulant and TBT were compared in an environmental risk assessment to predict their effects on the environment. Sea-Nine antifoulant was degraded rapidly in the environment by microorganisms. Its half-life in aerobic and anaerobic microcosm studies was less than 1 h. TBT degraded slowly under aerobic and anaerobic conditions with half-lives ranging from 6 to 9 months. The degradation products of Sea-Nine antifoulant were ring-opened compounds with greatly reduced toxicity. TBT degraded to dibutyltin species, which were still toxic and persistent in the environment. Bioaccumulation studies in fish showed essentially no bioaccumulation of the Sea-Nine biocide. The bioaccumulation of TBT was significant, with bioconcentration factors as high as 10000. The Sea-Nine antifoulant showed no chronic or reproductive toxicity to marine species, while TBT showed a wide range of effects on growth, development, and reproduction at levels as low as 2 parts per trillion (ppt). Computer modeling using the Exposure Analysis Modeling System (EXAMS) predicted maximum concentrations of Sea-Nine biocide of up to 10 ppt, far below the maximum acceptable environmental concentration (MAEC) of 630 ppt. The maximum predicted concentrations of TBT were as high as 345 ppt, far above the UK Environmental Standard in seawater of 2 ppt.
Archive | 1995
Angela Bridget Downey; Valerie Simone Frazier; Gary Lewis Willingham
Archive | 1998
Gary Lewis Willingham; Samuel Eugene Sherba; Barry Clifford Lange; Enrique Luis Michelotti
Archive | 1991
Andrew B. Law; Gary Lewis Willingham
Archive | 1995
Robert Alva Woodruff; Jemin Charles Hsu; Gary Lewis Willingham; Angela Bridget Downey; Terry Michael Williams
Archive | 2001
David Junhui Lansdale Dai; Gary Lewis Willingham
Archive | 1991
George Harvey Redlich; Gary Lewis Willingham; John Steven Chapman
Archive | 1992
Samuel Eugene Sherba; Terry Michael Williams; Gary Lewis Willingham
Archive | 1990
Gary Lewis Willingham; Ronald Lee Derbyshire
Archive | 1990
Andrew B. Law; Gary Lewis Willingham