Gayle V. Davidson-Shivers

Effects of Linking Structure and Cognitive Style on Students' Performance and Attitude in a Computer-Based Hypertext Environment

The purpose of this study was to determine the implications of content organization and cognitive style with regard to the design of hypertext. Specifically, the study examined the effects of linking structure type and field-dependence and -independence on recall of verbal information, as well as attitudes toward instructional materials. Subjects were 139 undergraduate college students. Five hypertext-based instructional treatments using different linking strategies (linear, hierarchical, hierarchical-associative, associative, and random) with the same content (Chinese Politics) were created for five groups of subjects. Overall, the results of the study indicate that students with higher scores on the Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT) test outperformed students with lower scores on the GEFT test on the performance posttest. Students tended to like hierarchical linking structures and hierarchical-associative linking structures more than linear structures and those who were more field independent had more positive attitudes than did students with lower scores on the GEFT test. In addition, students with lower field-dependency would have more positive attitudes when using less structured instruction, while students who are more field independent would prefer more structured instruction. Implication of these findings for hypertext design and directions for future research are discussed.

Planning the Evaluation of Online Instruction

There are two types of evaluation, formative and summative. At this stage of the WBID Model, formative evaluation plans are fully developed and summative evaluation plans are developed to a preliminary state. The formative evaluation facilitates the revision of the prototype and its website as they are developed. This evaluation is enacted once the concurrent design stage begins and is then carried into the initial implementation of the online instruction, which would be considered a field trial. The second part of planning, the preliminary planning for summative evaluation, is an important feature of the WBID Model. It allows for data about the instructional situation to be collected prior to implementation. Often, valuable information is lost when data on the state of the instructional products or practices is not collected before a new innovation is introduced (Salmon and Gardner, Educational Researcher 15:13-19, 1986). The final planning for and conducting of summative evaluation occurs after full implementation.

Foundations of Online Learning and Instructional Design

The remaining four foundational areas of the Web-Based Instructional Design (WBID) Model are learning theories, systems theories, communication theories, and instructional design (ID) models. Principles within each of the learning paradigms provide the theoretical basis for the integrated, multi-theoretical approach to learning used in the WBID Model. Systems theories identify aspects of systematic and systemic processes that underlie most ID models. Communication theories provide general principles related to message and visual design. Conventional and Alternative ID models are fundamental to the stages within the WBID Model.

Concurrent Design: Preplanning and Design Tasks

The designer’s attention turns to design at this stage in the WBID Model. Essential design tasks move the design and development process from analysis through development. At this point in the WBID Model, project plans are developed, tasks assigned to personnel, and tasks such as writing objectives, creating assessments, and establishing timelines occur. Throughout the process, continuous improvement through evaluation and enhancement occurs.

Implementation: Establishing a Sense of Community

The Implementation Stage of the WBID Model brings the results of previous stages to fruition. After concurrent activities are completed, implementation procedures begin. The major focus of implementation is creating the learning community however it is designed. For implementation to be a success, each member of the learning community must understand online teaching and learning and employ appropriate facilitation and management strategies. Personnel, budget, and time allocations are also critical to successful implementation. Final preparation activities include contacting the learners, checking that the course is functioning correctly, and conducting any necessary participant training on online learning/teaching skills.

Overview of Online Instruction and Learning Environments and Communities

Online instruction is used by a variety of organizations, including business and industry, military and government, higher education, and PK-12 schools to provide learners with training and educational opportunities. Types of online learning communities can vary greatly from one end of a continuum being highly independent forms of learning, in which learners complete the instruction individually and self-paced, with little to no interaction with an instructor or other learners and, at the other end, where learners and instructors form highly interactive and participatory learning environments with a strong sense of community.

Concurrent Design: Instructional and Motivational Strategy Planning

Once the objectives are clustered, the next set of essential design tasks in the concurrent design stage is to determine the instructional and motivational strategies for online instruction. Formative evaluation continues as the instructional strategies take form. To promote a sense of continuity, the designer uses a conceptual framework for describing these instructional and motivational strategies. The WBID Model uses the WBI Strategy Worksheet as the means to frame and document such strategies. While creating these strategies, the designer must bear in mind other factors that impact online delivery: class size, navigation and learner control, feedback, and interactivity. The designer also determines the types of media to incorporate into the online instruction, if it has not already been predetermined.

Analysis: Considering Instructional Content for Online Instruction

Instructional content is the last part of the second phase of analysis. During the instructional content analysis, the designer delineates the major steps and subordinate skills (subskills) that learners perform in order to reach the instructional goal. These steps and subskills are illustrated in a learning task map (LTM) containing a line that divides the new learning from required entry skills. The LTM facilitates the ordering and sequencing of steps and skills. Task items and their identified outcome level are entered into a table, known as the Task-Objective-Assessment Item Blueprint (TOAB). Later in the WBID Model, the TOAB is used as a tool to match objectives and assessment items with task items. The preliminary goal statement is then reviewed and changed as needed to create a final instructional goal. Findings from the entire analysis stage provide implications for online design, implementation, and evaluation.

Conducting Summative Evaluation and Research: The Final Stage

In the evaluation planning stage (refer to Chap. 5), the preliminary plans for the summative evaluation were developed. These plans provide a framework to prepare for and carry out the summative evaluation. Research can also be conducted during the final stage. Summative evaluation occurs at a predetermined point in the WBID life cycle, usually when major revisions are no longer taking place and the online course has been used by a large number or percentage of the target population. Its purpose is to determine the value and worth of online instruction. Planning, conducting, and reporting summative evaluation and research comprise the last stage of the WBID Model.

Concurrent Design: Putting Design Plans into Development Action

In the WBID Model, design and development activities are completed concurrently. The design planning, which results in the WBI Strategy Worksheet, is the basis for developing the prototypes and online instruction. Additionally, message and visual design principles help guide the development, assembly, and organization of the instruction and LMS/website content. Initial development tasks include developing an interface prototype, creating flowcharts, and developing storyboards. Later development tasks include fully developing the digital elements that will be deployed in the LMS, converting prototypes into Web pages, and incorporating media. Formative evaluation procedures are included to ensure that resulting online instruction meets design specifications.