Genna Angello

Overcoming Fixation: Creative Problem Solving and Retrieval-Induced Forgetting

Retrieving information from memory causes the forgetting of other information in memory, a phenomenon known as retrieval-induced forgetting (Anderson, Bjork, & Bjork, 1994). Retrieval-induced forgetting is believed to be caused by inhibitory processes that act to resolve competition (Anderson, 2003; Storm, in press). According to this account, the attempt to retrieve a target item activates nontarget items, creating competition and requiring that the nontarget items be inhibited. Retrieval-induced forgetting is the consequence of this adaptive process—one that functions to resolve competition and facilitate retrieval. Here, we report a study examining the role of inhibition in creative problem solving. Many problems are difficult to solve because old and inappropriate ideas cause mental fixation, impeding the generation of new and appropriate ideas (Smith, 2003). Inhibition may facilitate creative problem solving by providing a mechanism by which to bypass fixation and achieve a creative solution. We tested this hypothesis by measuring retrieval-induced forgetting and correlating that measure with performance on the Remote Associates Test (RAT; Mednick, 1962). To solve a RAT problem, participants must generate a common associate for three cue words (e.g., manners, tennis, round; solution: table). RAT problems are difficult to solve because the strongest associate for each cue word (e.g., polite, ball, and square, respectively) often bears no relationship to the other cue words and would not, therefore, serve as an appropriate solution. Once activated, however, these strong associates can cause fixation and impede the generation of creative and appropriate associates (Smith & Blankenship, 1991). We manipulated the extent to which participants experienced fixation by exposing half of the participants to misleading associates prior to problem solving. If inhibition underlies retrieval-induced forgetting, and if inhibition functions to resolve competition, then individuals who demonstrate more retrieval-induced forgetting in the retrieval-practice paradigm should also demonstrate a superior ability to overcome fixation in the RAT.

Multiple-Choice Tests Exonerated, at Least of Some Charges Fostering Test-Induced Learning and Avoiding Test-Induced Forgetting

Among the criticisms of multiple-choice tests is that—by exposing the correct answer as one of the alternatives—such tests engage recognition processes rather than the productive retrieval processes known to enhance later recall. We tested whether multiple-choice tests could trigger productive retrieval processes—provided the alternatives were made plausible enough to enable test takers to retrieve both why the correct alternatives were correct and why the incorrect alternatives were incorrect. In two experiments, we found not only that properly constructed multiple-choice tests can indeed trigger productive retrieval processes, but also that they had one potentially important advantage over cued-recall tests. Both testing formats fostered retention of previously tested information, but multiple-choice tests also facilitated recall of information pertaining to incorrect alternatives, whereas cued-recall tests did not. Thus, multiple-choice tests can be constructed so that they exercise the very retrieval processes they have been accused of bypassing.

Thinking can cause forgetting: memory dynamics in creative problem solving.

Research on retrieval-induced forgetting has shown that retrieval can cause the forgetting of related or competing items in memory (Anderson, Bjork, & Bjork, 1994). In the present research, we examined whether an analogous phenomenon occurs in the context of creative problem solving. Using the Remote Associates Test (RAT; Mednick, 1962), we found that attempting to generate a novel common associate to 3 cue words caused the forgetting of other strong associates related to those cue words. This problem-solving-induced forgetting effect occurred even when participants failed to generate a viable solution, increased in magnitude when participants spent additional time problem solving, and was positively correlated with problem-solving success on a separate set of RAT problems. These results implicate a role for forgetting in overcoming fixation in creative problem solving.

Effects of similarity on environmental context cueing

Three experiments examined the prediction that context cues which are similar to study contexts can facilitate episodic recall, even if those cues are never seen before the recall test. Environmental context cueing effects have typically produced such small effect sizes that influences of moderating factors, such as the similarity between encoding and retrieval contexts, would be difficult to observe experimentally. Videos of environmental contexts, however, can be used to produce powerful context-dependent memory effects, particularly when only one memory target is associated with each video context, intentional item-context encoding is encouraged, and free recall tests are used. Experiment 1 showed that a not previously viewed video of the study context provided an effective recall cue, although it was not as effective as the originally viewed video context. Experiments 2 and 3 showed that videos of environments that were conceptually similar to encoding contexts (e.g., both were videos of ball field games) also cued recall, but not as well if the encoding contexts were given specific labels (e.g., “home run”) incompatible with test contexts (e.g., a soccer scene). A fourth experiment that used incidental item-context encoding showed that video context reinstatement has a robust effect on paired associate memory, indicating that the video context reinstatement effect does not depend on interactive item-context encoding or free recall testing.

Overcoming fixation with repeated memory suppression.

Fixation (blocks to memories or ideas) can be alleviated not only by encouraging productive work towards a solution, but, as the present experiments show, by reducing counterproductive work. Two experiments examined relief from fixation in a word-fragment completion task. Blockers, orthographically similar negative primes (e.g., ANALOGY), blocked solutions to word fragments (e.g., A_L_ _GY) in both experiments. After priming, but before the fragment completion test, participants repeatedly suppressed half of the blockers using the Think/No-Think paradigm, which results in memory inhibition. Inhibiting blockers did not alleviate fixation in Experiment 1 when conscious recollection of negative primes was not encouraged on the fragment completion test. In Experiment 2, however, when participants were encouraged to remember negative primes at fragment completion, relief from fixation was observed. Repeated suppression may nullify fixation effects, and promote creative thinking, particularly when fixation is caused by conscious recollection of counterproductive information.

Clue Insensitivity in Remote Associates Test Problem Solving

Does spreading activation from incidentally encountered hints cause incubation effects? We used Remote Associates Test (RAT) problems to examine effects of incidental clues on impasse resolution. When solution words were seen incidentally 3-sec before initially unsolved problems were retested, more problems were resolved (Experiment 1). When strong semantic associates of solutions were used as incidental clues, however, it did not improve resolution (Experiments 2 and 4). The semantic associates we used as incidental clues primed our RAT solution words in a lexical decision task, but they did not facilitate impasse resolution unless participants were explicitly instructed to use the associates as hints to the retested problems (Experiment 4). The results do not support the theory that spreading activation is a sufficient cause of incubation effects, and suggest that seren dipitously encountered clues (i.e., words that are semantically related to RAT solutions) have no automatic benefit on impasse resolution in RAT problem solving.

Fun in Making: Understanding the experience of fun and learning through curriculum-based Making in the elementary school classroom ✰

Abstract In this article, we investigate the child’s experience of fun and learning within curriculum-integrated Maker activities in the elementary school classroom. Little is currently understood as to how Making makes learning fun, particularly in formal educational contexts. We conducted an in-the-wild week-long study that implements Maker activities designed with 3rd, 4th, and 5th grade teachers during science classes. Qualitative video-based analysis of the sessions for six students and analysis of all the students’ self-reports were performed to derive an understanding of the determinants of fun and learning in the children’s experiences. We highlight issues that may inform future directions in the investigation of Making as entertainment technologies in education.

Making as the New Colored Pencil: Translating Elementary Curricula into Maker Activities

We present Making activities designed and observed within the formal environment of elementary school classrooms. Using a collaborative curriculum-matching design process with teachers, 8 Maker activities and lesson plans were developed, and implemented in Science and Language Arts classrooms of a school with a large percentage of students from underrepresented populations, over the course of 18 weeks during one semester. Coded videos revealed three categories of Maker activities: those that enabled learning, demonstrated learning, and provided learning of the concept itself. Experiences of teachers and students also revealed eagerness to participate, engagement, and exploration in the activities, as observed in a series of analyses. Other themes include the importance of multi-sensory exploration and ownership of self-constructed apparatuses with electronics. The resulting Maker activities and lesson plans offer strategies for familiarizing students with electronic tools and fostering tinkering while remaining true to the learning standards of the classroom.

A Systemic Analysis of Making in Elementary Schools: Understanding Making for Children through Activity Theory

Based on an intensive semester-long study of designing and implementing curriculum-based Maker activities in 6 classes, this paper presents themes derived from a qualitative analysis of experience data using the framework of Activity Theory. Insights generated contribute to the understanding of the integration of Making into elementary schools at a systemic level.