Gennaro Pica

The Motivational Dynamics of Retrieval-Induced Forgetting A Test of Cognitive Energetics Theory

Two experiments addressed the phenomenon of retrieval-induced forgetting (RIF) from the standpoint of cognitive energetics theory (CET). Consistent with the inhibitory account of RIF and with the notion that inhibition can be demanding and resource dependent, we found that where the inhibitory activity was difficult (vs. easy), defining a high restraining force according to the CET, RIF occurred only in the presence of a high driving force combining an elevated motivation to inhibit with the availability of high resources. Overall, the current work highlights the crucial role of motivation in producing the RIF and the way in which this phenomenon abides by the general principles of motivated cognition.

Persuading drivers to refrain from speeding: Effects of message sidedness and regulatory fit

Building on regulatory fit theory (Higgins, 2000, 2005), we tested whether two-sided ads were more effective than one-sided ads in changing intentions toward driving behavior when message recipients were high in assessment orientation rather than locomotion orientation. In one study either a locomotion or an assessment orientation were situationally induced (Study 1) and in another study these different orientations were chronic predispositions (Study 2). As predicted, both studies found that for participants high in assessment, two-sided ads were more effective than one-sided ads, as reflected in stronger engagement with the persuasive message and stronger intentions to reduce driving speed. In contrast, for participants high in locomotion, one-sided ads were more effective than two-sided ads. There was also evidence that the fit effect on intentions to comply was mediated by strength of engagement with the message. Implications for persuasion concerning driving behaviors are discussed.

Effect of circadian rhythms on retrieval-induced forgetting.

This study investigated the effects of natural circadian rhythms on retrieval-induced forgetting (RIF; Anderson et al. in J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 20:1063–1087, 1994). Individuals tested at optimal times (i.e., morning persons tested in the morning and evening persons tested in the evening) showed a significantly greater RIF effect than individuals tested at non-optimal times (i.e., morning persons tested in the evening and evening persons tested in the morning). Thus, the limited quantity of resources available to allocate in the inhibitory activity during non-optimal times produced a significant decrement in RIF. These findings are compatible with the inhibitory account of RIF and with the notion of a resource-demanding process underlying this memory phenomenon.

The relationship between thought suppression and retrieval-induced forgetting: an analysis of witness memories

The aim of the present research was to examine the relationship between individual differences in thought suppression and retrieval-induced forgetting (RIF) in witness-like situations. We predicted that people who are more prone to suppress undesired thoughts and memories would demonstrate a stronger RIF effect. Consistent with findings obtained in a US sample (Blumberg in Personal Individ Differ 29:943–950, 2000), results of a preliminary study (Study 1) confirmed the three-factor structure of the white bear suppression inventory (WBSI): the tendency to rely on thought suppression (suppression dimension), the frequency of experiencing intrusive thoughts (intrusion dimension), and the frequency of using self-distraction to avoid undesired thoughts (self-distraction dimension). Consistent with our hypotheses, Study 2 found that only the suppression sub-dimension of the WBSI was positively and significantly related to RIF. Theoretical expectations of these findings and implications for witness research are discussed.

Letting myself go forward past wrongs: How regulatory modes affect self-forgiveness

The present research addresses the question of whether regulatory-mode orientations affect self-forgiveness. We expected that people with a strong locomotion orientation would be more inclined to self-forgiveness because of their tendencies toward movement and change, which focus them on the future, whereas people with a strong assessment orientation would refrain from self-forgiveness due to their evaluative tendencies which focus them on the past. These hypotheses were supported by the results in four studies that tested the relation between regulatory modes and self-forgiveness by measuring (Studies 1, 3 and 4) and manipulating (Study 2) regulatory-mode-orientations. Finally, in Study 4 we examined more closely our hypothesis that the relation between self-forgiveness and regulatory modes is mediated by past and future temporal foci. The implications of the results for regulatory mode theory are also discussed.

Motivated Shield From Chronic Noise Environment: Moderation of the Relationship Between Noise Sensitivity and Work Wellbeing by Need for Closure

Several studies have underlined how chronic exposure to environmental noise may have negative effects on performance, wellbeing, and social relations. The present study (N = 90 employees of a motor factory who are chronically exposed to environmental noise) investigated whether the negative effects of chronic exposure of noise-sensitive individuals to noise in the workplace may be moderated by the need for cognitive closure (i.e., an epistemic tendency to reduce uncertainty; NFCC, Kruglanski, 2004). As NFCC has been shown to enhance protection of the focal goal by reducing interference (Kossowska, 2007; Pica et al., 2013), we hypothesized that people with high NFCC should be able to manage the interference coming from environmental noise and concentrate on their tasks more than their low-NFCC counterparts. The results confirm that the negative effects of noise sensitivity on job satisfaction, state anxiety, and turnover intent were higher among low (vs. high)-NFCC individuals.

“Keeping in mind the gender stereotype”: the role of need for closure in the retrieval-induced forgetting of female managers’ qualities

The present research addressed the question of whether need for closure (NFC; Kruglanski in The psychology of closed mindedness, Psychology Press, New York, 2004) biases individuals’ memory of female leaders. Merging research on role congruity theory of leadership (Koenig et al. in Psychol Bull 4:616–642, 2011. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023557) and research on retrieval-induced forgetting (RIF, Anderson et al. in J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cognit 20:1063–1087, 1994. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.65.5.861), we hypothesized and found that high-NFC participants show (1) a higher RIF of dimensions commonly associated with the leadership prototype (agentic/masculine) ascribed to female manager targets, when selectively retrieved dimensions commonly associated with the female prototype (communal/feminine) were ascribed to the same target; and (2) a lessened RIF of female stereotypical dimensions ascribed to female manager targets, when selectively retrieved prototypical leadership dimensions were ascribed to the same target. Overall, the present findings suggest that when faced with women leaders, high NfC enhances the accessibility of gender stereotype-congruent memories and reduces the accessibility of prototypical leadership ones, thus reducing the RIF of communal/feminine memories.

Retrieval-Induced Forgetting as Motivated Cognition

Recalling information from a particular category can reduce one’s memory capability for related, non-retrieved information. This is known as the retrieval-induced forgetting effect (RIF; Anderson et al., 1994). The present paper reviews studies that show that the RIF effect is motivated. More specifically, we describe research showing that the need for closure (NFC; the motivation to attain epistemic certainty; Kruglanski and Webster, 1996) generally enhances the RIF, because this prevents uncertainty and confusion from the intrusion of unwanted memories during selective-retrieval. However, when the content of the to-be-forgotten information serves the retriever’s goals, NFC reduces RIF. Overall, the present findings are consistent with the view that motivation can affect the magnitude of RIF effects which, in turn, can serve as a mechanism for reaching preferred conclusions.

Individual differences in preference for thought suppression: Components and correlates of the White Bear Suppression Inventory

This study examines the psychometric properties of the White Bear Suppression Inventory (WBSI, Wegner & Zanakos, 1994) in a sample of Italian undergraduate students. The WBSI was designed as a self-report measure of people’s chronic tendency to suppress thoughts. Consistent with Blumberg’s (2000) analysis, in the present sample factor analysis of the scale revealed three correlated factors: unwanted intrusive thoughts, thought suppression, and self-distraction (to avoid thoughts). Individual differences needed for cognitive closure (NfCC) and regulatory mode orientations (locomotion and assessment) were found to be diversely correlated with the three factors of the WBSI scale. Specifically, NfCC was positively correlated with thought suppression, assessment was positively correlated with unwanted intrusive thoughts, and locomotion was positively correlated with self-distraction as a cognitive avoidance strategy. The theoretical meaning of these findings is considered.

Quando il leader interagisce in maniera equa. Gli effetti dell’equità interazionale e il ruolo moderatore del bisogno di chiusura cognitiva

La presente ricerca esamina il ruolo moderatore del bisogno di chiusura cognitiva nella relazione fra equita interazionale del leader ed efficacia della leadership. Il bisogno di chiusura cognitiva, volto ad operazionalizzare il bisogno di riduzione dell’incertezza, viene proposto in termini di motivazione sottostante alla formazione del giudizio sul leader in funzione dell’equita interazionale percepita. Prendendo le mosse dalla teoria della gestione dell’incertezza (van den Bos e Lind, 2002), si ipotizza che l’efficacia della leadership sia contingente al grado di giustizia percepita soprattutto per i collaboratori con una piu alta motivazione alla chiusura cognitiva. I risultati confermano quanto ipotizzato: il bisogno di chiusura cognitiva dei collaboratori massimizza l’efficacia della leadership equa interazionale.