George B. Cunningham

The relationships among commitment to change,coping with change, and turnover intentions

Recent research has adopted a micro, people-oriented focus to the study of organizational change, where the focus is on individual employee behaviours, attitudes, and cognitions. The purpose of this study is to integrate and expand this research by examining the relationship among commitment to change, coping with change, and turnover intentions. Data were collected from 299 employees of 10 organizations undergoing significant organizational change. Results from structural equation modelling indicate that (a) the relationship between affective commitment to change and turnover intentions was fully mediated by coping with change, (b) the relationship between continuance commitment to change and turnover intentions was only partially mediated by coping with change, and (c) normative commitment to change had a direct impact on turnover intentions. Results are discussed in terms of implications for managing organizational change.

The Theory of Planned Behaviour and Intentions to Attend a Sport Event

In this study, the theory of planned behaviour was used to better understand consumers’ intentions to attend a sport event (i.e., hockey). The theory was also extended by including previous behaviour. Data were gathered from 136 university students enrolled in physical activity classes. After controlling for race, independent variables accounted for 64% unique variance in intentions. Attitudes, subjective norms, previous behaviour and perceived behavioural control-time were positively related to intentions, with the former two variables accounting for the most variance. Results are discussed in relation to theoretical extensions, practical implications and future directions.

Explaining the Under-Representation of Women in Leadership Positions of Sport Organizations: A Symbolic Interactionist Perspective

Research suggests that females are vastly under-represented in the upper echelons of sport organizations. As such, the purpose of the current article was to apply a symbolic interactionist perspective to the lacking presence of women in leadership positions of sport organizations. The model proposes that gender-role meanings and stereotypes associated with social and sport ideology may function to limit the capacity of females within the sport context. Specifically, in response to the lower levels of societal power and status afforded to women, females within sport organizations may fail to view themselves as adequate and appropriate leaders and/or coaches thus preventing them from acting as such (i.e., self-limiting behavior). Identity theory and the identity control process are applied to support the linking of these macro and micro processes, respectively. The proposed model also suggests the presence of a moderator; ones self-concept, that may provide a protective mechanism to the potential detrimental affects of ideological meanings, identity formation, and subsequent self-limiting behaviors. Additionally, suggestions for future research are offered.

Access Discrimination in Intercollegiate Athletics

The purpose of this study was to examine the representation of racial minorities in intercollegiate coaching positions. Data were gathered from 191 NCAA Division I men’s basketball programs (60% of all programs). Results indicate that White head coaches were more likely than were Black head coaches to have White assistant coaches on staff and vice versa. Results further indicate that the proportion of Black assistant coaches (33%) was significantly less than the proportion of potential Black coaches (48%). Further, the race of the head coach moderated this relationship as Blacks were significantly underrepresented on the coaching staffs of White head coaches (30%) but not of Black head coaches (45%). It is suggested that the key to mitigating access discrimination is for coaches and administrators to realize the value ofdiversityandtheimportanceofadiverseworkforceontheultimateeffectiveness of the workgroup and organization.

Data Aggregation in Multilevel Analysis: A Review of Conceptual and Statistical Issues

Understanding that the behavior of people takes place within a context, over the past 20 years research in education and the sport sciences has witnessed an increasing development of multilevel frameworks that are both conceptually and methodologically sound. Despite these advances, the use of multilevel models and research designs in education still could be improved. As noted by recent editorial commentaries and reviews, confusion often exists about appropriate levels of analysis both at the conceptual and statistical level. The purpose of this article is threefold. First, we explain how multilevel conceptualizations can aid our understanding of behavior, especially within a given context. Second, we review three aggregation methods for analyzing multilevel data: within group agreement, intraclass correlations, and within and between analysis. Third, we provide a conceptual and statistical example to demonstrate how these aggregation techniques could be utilized to answer questions in sport and physical activity.

The Differential Effects of Human Capital for Male and Female Division I Basketball Coaches

In 1972, Title IX of the Education Amendments was passed. This mandate ensured, among other things, that persons would not be denied access to or discriminated from participating in federally funded activities on the basis of sex. As a result of this mandate, the athletic world ofgirls and women has significantly changed. For example, the number of girls and women participating in sport and physical activity has increased dramatically (Naughton, 1997) as has opportunities for these athletes (Acosta & Carpenter, 2000). However, an unexpected result of Title IX, especially at the intercollegiate level, has been the decrease in the proportion of women serving as coaches of womens teams (Acosta & Carpenter, 2000). As womens sport opportunities became more pervasive, men increasingly filled coaching positions. Longitudinal work by Acosta and Carpenter (2000) shed light on this phenomenon. For example, in 1972, approximately 90% of all intercollegiate head coaches of womens teams were women. By 1978, the first year in which schools were required to comply with Title IX, the proportion offemale coaches had plummeted to 58%. The latest figures indicate that the trend is continuing, as only 45.6% of all intercollegiate womens teams have a woman as a head coach. Acosta and Carpenter (2000) also reported that women constitute less than 2% of the coaches ofmens teams. In response to this, several academicians have sought to discern why the proportion ofwomen in coach-

Challenge Is Key: An Investigation of Affective Organizational Commitment in Undergraduate Interns

In this study, the authors investigated factors related to affective organizational commitment in undergraduate interns. They examined job challenge, supervisor support, and role stress as antecedents to commitment. Results based on a sample of senior undergraduate students (N = 71) showed that the 3 work variables explained 35% of the variance in affective organizational commitment. The authors discuss implications for educators and managers in charge of designing and implementing quality internships.

OCCUPATIONAL COMMITMENT AND INTENT TO LEAVE THE COACHING PROFESSION: Differences According to Race

Despite the predominance of Black athletes in much of collegiate athletics today, Black coaches constitute a small proportion of the total coaching population. To this end, we posited that the deficiency could be attributed to the notion that Black coaches leave the profession sooner than do White coaches. In taking an institutional theory perspective, the purpose of this study was to examine possible differences between Black and White assistant coaches for affective occupational commitment and intent to leave the coaching profession. Results of multiple hierarchical regression analyses indicate that normative isomorphic pressures are significant predictors of professional socialization, which in turn predicts commitment to the profession. Finally, there is an inverse relationship between affective occupational commitment and intent to leave the profession. Findings from the study supported the theory to explain the paucity of Black coaches in the NCAA by demonstrating that the deficit could be attributed to the fact that more Black coaches intend to leave the profession than do White coaches. This is true regardless of the fact that Black coaches perceived greater professional socialization than Whites and similar feelings of affective commitment. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.

The Application of Social Cognitive Career Theory to Sport and Leisure Career Choices

Social cognitive career theory is used to investigate student intentions to enter the sport and leisure industry. Data are gathered from 197 undergraduate students from four universities located across the United States. Path analysis supports the general model, as self-efficacy and outcomes expectations hold positive associations with vocational interests, which in turn are positively related to choice goals. Self-efficacy is also positively associated with outcomes expectations. Additionally, through comparison of competing models, support is garnered for the effects of supports (i.e., human and social capital) and barriers (i.e., discrimination and lack of advancement opportunities) to be manifested on self-efficacy. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Occupational Turnover Intent Among Assistant Coaches of Women's Teams: The Role of Organizational Work Experiences

The purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which organizational work experiences could be used to understand when coaches planned to leave the profession. NCAA Division I assistant coaches (N = 188) were surveyed concerning (a) the age at which they anticipated leaving the coaching profession and (b) the extent to which the 3 work experiences described by S. Inglis, K. E. Danylchuk, and D. Pastore (1996)—Recognition and Collegial Support, Work Balance and Conditions, and Inclusivity—were fulfilled. Chi-square analyses revealed that women intended to leave the profession at an earlier age than did men. A multivariate analysis of covariance indicated that persons who intended to remain in the coaching profession after they turned 55 worked in organizational environments that emphasized Inclusivity. These results are particularly important for female coaches, as women consider an inclusive work environment to be more important than do men (D. L. Pastore, S. Inglish, & K. E. Danylchuck, 1996).