George P. Danko

Cross-cultural assessment of altruism and its correlates

Abstract We describe the development and psychometric properties of a 56 item self report altruism scale. Subjects reported on the frequency with which they gave help and received help (for items with a direct reciprocal to giving) and on the rated importance of the helping behavior described in each item. The scale was administered to university student subjects in Australia, Egypt, Korea, the Republic of China (Taiwan), the United States (Hawaii and Missouri) and Yugoslavia. We obtained measures of guilt, shame, psychoticism, extraversion, neuroticism, lying, and intrinsic and extrinsic religiosity from subjects; not all measures were obtained from all subjects in all samples. The scale had good psychometric properties. Mean scores on the three altruism measures differed significantly across samples; the differences were not associated with national or regional income level in any consistent fashion. Sex differences, when significant, indicated that males gave more help and, for two of three significant differences, received more help as well. Differences across samples and sexes were almost always consistent across categories of altruism. For most samples, measures of altruism were positively correlated with guilt, extraversion, and intrinsic religiosity while shame was negatively correlated with giving and receiving help but positively correlated with the rated importance of helping. Lie scale scores generally yielded low negative correlations with altruism scores. Amounts of giving and receiving help and the rated importance of helping were very highly correlated both within and across samples. While it is probable that giving help would be regarded as socially desirable, it seems improbable that receiving help is regarded as highly desirable. The very high correlations between giving and receiving help, like the lack of association between lie scores and altruism measures, suggest that social desirability response sets did not greatly influence our results. The very high correlations across measures of giving and receiving support the existence of reciprocal altruism.

Guilt, shame, and adjustment in three cultures

Abstract While guilt and shame may form a second-order factor of ‘sensitivity of conscience’, they form relatively distinct first-order factors. A study of male and female subjects from the United States (Hawaii), the Republic of Korea (South Korea) and the Republic of China (Taiwan) revealed a high degree of consistency across national groups in whether individual test items describing socially disapproved conduct loaded on guilt vs shame factors and also in the relative seriousness with which each of these lapses in conduct were viewed. In general, guilt was unrelated to neuroticism and negatively related to psychoticism while shame was positively related to neuroticism and negatively related to psychoticism. Cross-cultural similarities are substantial and call to question the belief that Asian and Occidental societies (at least the better educated segments of such groups) differ in the degree to which guilt vs shame are used as mechanisms for social control.

Intrinsic and extrinsic religiosity as related to conscience, adjustment, and altruism

Abstract Two separate samples (Hawaii and Missouri) of male and female university students responded to a measure of intrinsic and of extrinsic religiosity as well as to measures of sensitivity of conscience (guilt and shame), personality (Eysenck Personality Questionnaire), and of altruism (giving help, receiving help, rated importance of helping). While the two dimensions of religiosity tended to be positively correlated with one another, responses were not substantially associated with lie scale (social conformity) scores and were differentially associated with other measures. Intrinsic religiosity was positively correlated with guilt , insignificantly correlated with shame, negatively correlated with neuroticism, and positively correlated with altruism (especially for males). Extrinsic religiosity was negatively correlated with guilt, positively correlated with shame and with neuroticism, and uncorrelated or negatively correlated with measures of altruism. In general, the results support the belief that the distinction between dimensions of religiosity is real and of social relevance.

The Prognostic Implications of DSM-IV Abuse Criteria in Drinking Adolescents

BACKGROUND The validity of the DSM-IV diagnostic criteria for alcohol abuse has been questioned, and additional issues have been raised regarding the performance of this label in adolescents. While future diagnostic manuals might alter the approach to abuse, it is worthwhile to evaluate the implications of the current definition that has been in place since 1994. METHODS Six hundred and sixteen 12-19-year-old subjects (mean 16.5 years) were offspring identified in the Collaborative Study on the Genetics of Alcoholism (COGA) protocol who had ever consumed a full drink and who were followed up 5 years later using age-appropriate semi-structured interviews. Following the guidelines for evaluating the utility of the diagnostic labels of Robins and Guze [Robins, E., Guze, S.B., 1970. Establishment of diagnostic validity in psychiatric illness: its application to schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiat. 126, 983-987], the subjects with alcohol abuse were compared with other groups regarding clinical validators and clinical course. RESULTS At initial interview, the pattern of most alcohol use and problem variables were least severe for teenagers with no diagnosis, intermediate for those with abuse, and the highest for individuals with alcohol dependence. At follow-up, 50% of those with initial abuse maintained that diagnosis, 19% developed dependence, and 31% had no DSM-IV diagnosis. Baseline alcohol abuse predicted follow-up diagnosis even when evaluated along with initial demographic and substance use characteristics. CONCLUSIONS These results support some assets for the DSM-IV alcohol abuse criteria in these adolescents, including indications of both cross-sectional and predictive validities. Additional studies will need to compare the current abuse label with other possible approaches.

Mood and anxiety symptoms among 140 children from alcoholic and control families

OBJECTIVE Children of alcoholics have been reported to have elevated levels of internalizing symptoms, including anxiety and depression. However, many studies have not adequately controlled for the influence of independent (i.e. not substance-induced) parental mood or anxiety disorders and other factors. The present evaluations assess the relationships of the family histories of alcohol use disorders and independent mood and anxiety disorders to internalizing symptoms in children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic subjects. METHOD A behavioral checklist and a structured interview were administered to the parents of 140 children aged 7-18 years. The fathers of these offspring had been recruited 15 years previously from a university population to participate in a prospective study of 453 men from alcoholic and nonalcoholic families. RESULTS While a higher score for one of four measures of internalizing symptoms in the children was found to relate to a higher density of alcoholic relatives, this pattern was more robust in children of parents with mood or anxiety disorders. In a hierarchical regression, the family history of alcohol use disorders did not add significantly to the prediction of any of the four internalizing scores in the children after considering the impact of a family history of independent mood and anxiety disorders. CONCLUSIONS The results indicate that internalizing symptoms in children of alcoholics were more strongly influenced by a positive family history of mood and anxiety disorders than the family history of alcohol use disorders.

Psychosocial risk and protective influences in Hawaiian adolescent psychopathology.

A large community sample of adolescents of a Native Hawaiian (Asian/ Pacific Islander) minority group was studied along with a small comparison group of non-Hawaiians, for the relationship between psychopathology (as measured by standard symptom scales) and (a) perceived support from family and friends, and (b) discussing problems with others. Expected gender patterns for friend support but not for family support were found. The Hawaiian boys appeared atypical, reporting nearly equal family support as Hawaiian girls. Discussing problems with another person was correlated with lower anxiety and depression scores but not aggression and substance abuse scores. It is concluded that gender and cultural factors influence symptom prevalence and severity as well as the impact of psychosocial risk factors.

Self reported negative experiences and dissociation

Abstract Subjects reported on how often 22 different bad things had happened to themselves and also completed a measure of dissociative experiences. The two sexes did not differ in their scores on either of the two measures. Four items on the bad things measure had to do with sexual abuse by family and by non-family members and with physical abuse by family and by non-family members. The correlation between negative experiences and dissociation was approx. 0.40 for the subjects of each sex, and remained at the same level when the scores on the four abuse items were excluded. These results suggest that dissociation is linked with a general tendency to recall and report negative experiences rather than solely with having experienced major traumatic events. Claims of having experienced traumatic events and dissociation may share a common underlying basis in neuroticism.

A 5‐Year Prospective Evaluation of DSM‐IV Alcohol Dependence With and Without a Physiological Component

BACKGROUND The DSM-III-R removed tolerance and withdrawal as required elements for a diagnosis of alcohol dependence. Although this practice was continued in DSM-IV, the more recent manual asked clinicians to note whether physiological aspects of withdrawal (tolerance and withdrawal) had ever been experienced. Few studies have determined the prognostic meaning of a history of a physiological component to DSM-IV alcohol dependence. METHODS Face-to-face structured interviews were used to evaluate the course of alcohol, drug, and psychiatric problems during the subsequent 5 years for 1094 alcohol-dependent men and women. These subjects had been classified into subgroups at the time of initial interview regarding evidence of tolerance or withdrawal, and all evaluations were based on DSM-IV criteria. At baseline, the application of DSM-IV diagnostic guidelines resulted in 649 (59.3%) individuals having a history of an alcohol withdrawal syndrome, with or without tolerance (group 1); 391 (35.7%) with histories of tolerance but not withdrawal (group 2); and 54 (4.9%) with no lifetime histories of tolerance or withdrawal (group 3). RESULTS During the 5-year follow-up, both the broad (group 1 plus 2 versus group 3) and narrow (group 1 versus group 2 plus group 3) definitions of physiological dependence were associated with more alcohol and drug problems. However, for most items, this differential primarily reflected differences between groups 1 and 3, with a less impressive effect by group 2. Although no group differences were noted for the rate of independent major depressive episodes, substance-induced depressions did differentiate among groups, a finding also most closely related to the distinction between groups 1 and 3. CONCLUSIONS These data support the prognostic importance of noting the presence of a physiological component in alcohol dependence and indicate the potential relevance of limiting the definition of a physiological component to withdrawal.

Psychiatric symptoms of Hawaiian adolescents

The purpose of this study was to examine the interrelationship of depressive symptoms with symptoms of anxiety, aggression, and substance abuse in Native Hawaiian adolescents. A total of 1,819 Native Hawaiian students were recruited from three high schools as part of the initial phase of an ongoing, 4-year, longitudinal, cross-sequential study. Psychiatric symptoms were measured with the Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression Scale (CES-D), Spielbergers State Anxiety Inventory (SAI), Braver Aggression Dimension Scale (BADS), and Substance Abuse Subtle Screening Inventory-Abbreviated (SASSI-A). Scales were standardized for this minority population. Depressive symptoms were strongly associated with symptoms of anxiety and aggression but only weakly associated with self-reported substance abuse. Girls had substantially higher scores than boys on all scales. Ninth graders reported more aggressive symptoms than did 12th graders. The educational level of the adolescents main caregiver was not associated with symptoms reported in any of the scales. Native Hawaiian adolescents report similar symptoms and symptom clusters as do adolescents on the mainland U.S. However, Native Hawaiian adolescent girls report a greater number of symptoms in all categories when compared to boys. This distinguishes them from most mainland adolescent populations.

Clinical implications of tolerance to alcohol in nondependent young drinkers

Background: Ten percent of teenagers and young adults with no alcohol diagnosis and a third of those with alcohol abuse report tolerance to alcohol. However, relatively few data are available on the clinical implications of tolerance in nondependent men and women. Methods: Data were gathered from 649 18-to-22-year-old drinking offspring from the Collaborative Study on the Genetics of Alcoholism (COGA) families. The prevalence and clinical correlates of tolerance were evaluated across subjects with no DSM-IV alcohol abuse and no tolerance, similar individuals with tolerance, subjects with alcohol abuse but no tolerance, and individuals with both alcohol abuse and tolerance. Results: Tolerance was associated with an almost doubling of the number of drinks needed to feel alcohols effects, and correlated with additional alcohol-related problems. In regression analyses, the most consistent and robust correlates of tolerance were the maximum number of drinks and alcohol problems, and tolerance remained informative after covarying for drinking quantity. Conclusions: Tolerance to alcohol may be a useful concept regarding nondependent drinkers that is not just a proxy for alcohol quantity but also reflects the presence of additional problems.