Georgia M. Black

Match Intensity and Pacing Strategies in Rugby League: An Examination of Whole-Game and Interchanged Players, and Winning and Losing Teams

Abstract Black, GM and Gabbett, TJ. Match intensity and pacing strategies in rugby league: An examination of whole-game and interchanged players, and winning and losing teams. J Strength Cond Res 28(6): 1507–1516, 2014—There is currently limited information on whether pacing occurs during rugby league match play. In addition, to date no research has investigated whether pacing strategies differ between winning and losing teams. This study investigated the pacing strategies of whole-game and interchanged rugby league players. Furthermore, we investigated the pacing strategies of winning and losing teams. Fifty-two rugby league players, from a sample of 11 teams competing in a semi-elite competition, underwent global positioning system analysis. Performances were divided into match quartiles for whole-game and interchanged players. Total distance, including low- and high-speed distances, and repeated high-intensity effort bouts were recorded. The total distance and low-speed distance covered across all quartiles of the match, but specifically quartiles 1 and 8, were greater for interchanged players than whole-game players. The match outcome differentially affected the pacing strategies of whole-game and interchanged players. Whole-game players from winning teams set a higher pacing strategy than whole-game players from losing teams (effect size [ES] = 1.03 ± 0.77, 96%, very likely), whereas interchanged players from losing teams demonstrated a greater “end-spurt” than interchanged players from winning teams (ES = 0.60 ± 0.52, 96%, very likely). The pacing strategies of interchanged players were higher than whole-game players, irrespective of playing position. The results of this study suggest that pacing strategies differ between interchanged and whole-game rugby league players. Furthermore, our results demonstrate a different pacing strategy between winning and losing teams. These findings suggest that physical preparation for rugby league matches, and recovery from these matches, should be individualized for whole-game and interchanged players. Finally, performing physically intense training on a regular basis is likely to develop the physical and mental qualities required to regularly compete at higher playing intensities.

Repeated High-Intensity-Effort Activity in Elite and Semielite Rugby League Match Play

PURPOSE No study has investigated the frequency and nature of repeated high-intensity-effort (RHIE) bouts across elite and semielite rugby league competitions. This study examined RHIE activity in rugby league match play across playing standards. PARTICIPANTS 36 elite and 64 semielite rugby league players. METHODS Global positioning system analysis was completed during 17 elite and 14 semielite matches. RESULTS The most commonly occurring RHIE bouts involved 2 efforts (2-RHIE) for both elite and semielite players. Only small differences were found in 2-RHIE activity between elite and semielite match play (effect size [ES] ≥ 0.31 ± 0.15, ≥ 88%, likely). RHIE bouts were more likely to involve contact as the number of efforts in a bout increased (ES ≥0.40 ± 0.15, 100%, almost certainly). Semielite players performed a greater proportion of 2-contact-effort RHIE bouts than their elite counterparts (68.2% vs 60.6%, ES 0.33 ± 0.15, 92%, likely), while elite players performed a greater proportion of 3-effort bouts (26.9% vs 21.1%, ES 0.31 ± 0.15, 88%, likely). Elite players also had a shorter recovery (1.00-3.99 vs ≥4.00 min) between RHIE bouts (ES ≥ 1.60 ± 0.71, ≥ 94%, likely). CONCLUSION These findings highlight the RHIE demands of elite and semielite rugby league match play. Elite players are more likely to perform RHIE bouts consisting of 3 efforts and to have a shorter recovery time between bouts. Exposing players to these RHIE demands in training is likely to improve their ability to tolerate the most demanding passages of match play.

Monitoring Workload in Throwing-Dominant Sports: A Systematic Review

BackgroundThe ability to monitor training load accurately in professional sports is proving vital for athlete preparedness and injury prevention. While numerous monitoring techniques have been developed to assess the running demands of many team sports, these methods are not well suited to throwing-dominant sports that are infrequently linked to high running volumes. Therefore, other techniques are required to monitor the differing demands of these sports to ensure athletes are adequately prepared for competition.ObjectiveTo investigate the different methodologies used to quantitatively monitor training load in throwing-dominant sports.MethodsA systematic review of the methods used to monitor training load in throwing-dominant sports was conducted using variations of terms that described different load-monitoring techniques and different sports. Studies included in this review were published prior to June 2015 and were identified through a systematic search of four electronic databases including Academic Search Complete, CINAHL, Medline and SPORTDiscus. Only full-length peer-reviewed articles investigating workload monitoring in throwing-dominant sports were selected for review.ResultsA total of 8098 studies were initially retrieved from the four databases and 7334 results were removed as they were either duplicates, review articles, non-peer-reviewed articles, conference abstracts or articles written in languages other than English. After screening the titles and abstracts of the remaining papers, 28 full-text papers were reviewed, resulting in the identification of 20 articles meeting the inclusion criteria for monitoring workloads in throwing-dominant sports. Reference lists of selected articles were then scanned to identify other potential articles, which yielded one additional article. Ten articles investigated workload monitoring in cricket, while baseball provided eight results, and handball, softball and water polo each contributed one article. Results demonstrated varying techniques used to monitor workload and purposes for monitoring workload, encompassing the relationship between workload and injury, individual responses to workloads, the effect of workload on subsequent performance and the future directions of workload-monitoring techniques.ConclusionThis systematic review highlighted a number of simple and effective workload-monitoring techniques implemented across a variety of throwing-dominant sports. The current literature placed an emphasis on the relationship between workload and injury. However, due to differences in chronological and training age, inconsistent injury definitions and time frames used for monitoring, injury thresholds remain unclear in throwing-dominant sports. Furthermore, although research has examined total workload, the intensity of workload is often neglected. Additional research on the reliability of self-reported workload data is also required to validate existing relationships between workload and injury. Considering the existing disparity within the literature, it is likely that throwing-dominant sports would benefit from the development of an automated monitoring tool to objectively assess throwing-related workloads in conjunction with well-established internal measures of load in athletes.

The effect of intense exercise periods on physical and technical performance during elite Australian Football match-play: A comparison of experienced and less experienced players

OBJECTIVES The physical and technical responses of experienced (≥5 years) and less experienced (1-4 years) elite Australian Football (AF) players were compared following the most intense passages of match-play. DESIGN Descriptive cohort study. METHODS Time-motion analyses were performed using global positioning systems (MinimaxX S4, Catapult Innovations, Melbourne, Australia) on one elite AF team during 13 matches. The global positioning data were categorised into total distance, low-speed activity (0-2.78ms(-1)), moderate-speed running (2.79-4.14ms(-1)) and high-speed running (≥4.15ms(-1)) distances. A standardised 5-point technical coding criteria was used to rate the number and quality of skill involvements during match-play. RESULTS Following the most intense 3-min running period the experienced players covered greater distances at high-speeds in match quarters two (effect size, ES=0.42±0.30) and three (ES=0.38±0.33) than their less experienced counterparts. Compared with less experienced players, experienced players performed more skill involvements during the second quarter (ES=0.42±0.33) and fourth quarter peak 3-min bouts of exercise intensity (ES=0.40±0.30) and quarter one (ES=0.49±0.29) and three subsequent periods (ES=0.33±0.20). CONCLUSIONS Less experienced players exhibited greater reductions in physical and technical performance following peak periods of match-play. These findings suggest that training may require a greater emphasis on developing the ability of less experienced players to maintain physical performance and gain possession of the football following intense periods of match-play.

Automatic Detection of Pitching and Throwing Events in Baseball With Inertial Measurement Sensors

PURPOSE Throwing loads are known to be closely related to injury risk. However, for logistic reasons, typically only pitchers have their throws counted, and then only during innings. Accordingly, all other throws made are not counted, so estimates of throws made by players may be inaccurately recorded and underreported. A potential solution to this is the use of wearable microtechnology to automatically detect, quantify, and report pitch counts in baseball. This study investigated the accuracy of detection of baseball pitching and throwing in both practice and competition using a commercially available wearable microtechnology unit. METHODS Seventeen elite youth baseball players (mean ± SD age 16.5 ± 0.8 y, height 184.1 ± 5.5 cm, mass 78.3 ± 7.7 kg) participated in this study. Participants performed pitching, fielding, and throwing during practice and competition while wearing a microtechnology unit. Sensitivity and specificity of a pitching and throwing algorithm were determined by comparing automatic measures (ie, microtechnology unit) with direct measures (ie, manually recorded pitching counts). RESULTS The pitching and throwing algorithm was sensitive during both practice (100%) and competition (100%). Specificity was poorer during both practice (79.8%) and competition (74.4%). CONCLUSIONS These findings demonstrate that the microtechnology unit is sensitive to detect pitching and throwing events, but further development of the pitching algorithm is required to accurately and consistently quantify throwing loads using microtechnology.

The Influence of Rotations on Match Running Performance in Female Australian Football Midfielders

PURPOSE With female Australian football (AF) gaining popularity, understanding match demands is becoming increasingly important. The aim of this study was to compare running performances of rotated and whole-quarter state-level female AF players during match quarters. METHODS Twenty-two state-level female AF midfielders wore Global Positioning System units during 14 games to evaluate activity profiles. The Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1 (Yo-Yo IR1) was used as a measure of high-intensity running ability. Data were categorized into whole quarter, rotation bout 1, and rotation bout 2 before being further divided into quartiles. Players were separated into high- or low-Yo-Yo IR1 groups using a median split based on their Yo-Yo IR1 performance. Short (4-6 min), moderate (6-12 min), and long (12-18 min) on-field bout activity profiles were compared with whole-quarter players. RESULTS High Yo-Yo IR1 performance allowed players to cover greater relative distances (ES = 0.57-0.88) and high-speed distances (ES = 0.57-0.86) during rotations. No differences were reported between Yo-Yo IR1 groups when players were required to play whole quarters (ES ≤ 0.26, likelihood ≤64%). Players who were on field for short to moderate durations exhibited greater activity profiles than whole-quarter players. CONCLUSIONS Superior high-speed running ability results in a greater activity profile than for players who possess lower high-speed running ability. The findings also highlight the importance of short to moderate (4-12 min) rotation periods and may be used to increase high-intensity running performance within quarters in female AF players.

Applied Sport Science of Australian Football: A Systematic Review

BackgroundIn recent years, there has been a large expansion in literature pertaining to the game of Australian football (AF). Furthermore, there have been a number of rule changes that are likely to have changed the demands of the game. Based on these advances and changes, it seemed important to conduct a review assessing the scientific literature surrounding the sport.ObjectiveThe review evaluates the match demands of AF, the qualities required for success, and the impact training and competition have on adaptation, injury and fatigue.MethodsA systematic search of PubMed, CINAHL, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science and Scopus for AF literature was conducted; studies investigating match demands, physical qualities, training practices and injury were included. Weighted means and standard deviations were calculated for match demands and physical and anthropometric profiles across playing standards.ResultsA total of 1830 articles were retrieved in the initial search, with 888 removed as duplicates, 626 removed for being non-relevant and a further 152 removed for being AF papers but not relevant to the review. As such, 164 AF papers were included in the review. Due to the intermittent high-intensity nature of match-play, players need a wide range of physical and technical qualities to excel, with speed, aerobic fitness, reactive agility and well-developed lean mass being central to success. Training for AF at the elite level is associated with high workloads, with players engaging in numerous training modalities; even altitude and heat training camps have been utilised by Australian Football League (AFL) teams to further augment fitness improvements. While high chronic workloads can be tolerated and are needed for improving physical qualities, careful planning and monitoring of internal and external workloads is required to minimise sharp spikes in load that are associated with injury.ConclusionsThere is a complex interaction between numerous contextual factors that influence the match demands that are discussed in this review. Whilst players must have the physical capacities to cope with the intense physical demands of AF matches, the successful execution of technical skills during match-play is central to success. To develop these skills and attributes, specific and carefully planned and monitored training must be performed over a number of years.

Physical fitness and peak running periods during female Australian football match-play

ABSTRACT Objective: To investigate the influence of physical fitness on peak periods of match-play. Methods: Forty-three female Australian footballers from three teams wore global positioning system units in matches during one competitive season. The Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test (Level 1) was conducted as an estimate of physical fitness. One-, two-, three-, four- and five-minute rolling periods were analysed in order to determine the “peak” and “subsequent” periods during match-play. Results: Midfielders covered greater distances during peak periods than half-line players (Effect size, ES range = 0.33–0.86; likelihood ≥76%). Nomeaningful differences were reported between positional groups for high-speed distances during the peak periods, with the exception of half-liners covering greater distance during the 1-minute period (ES = 0.38; likelihood = 80%).Higher fitness players covered greater peak total and high-speed (ES range = 0.70–1.16; likelihood ≥94%) distances than lower fitness players, irrespective of position. Higher fitness midfielders covered greater high-speed distances during the 1 to 3-minute subsequent periods than lower fitness midfielders (ES range = 0.46–0.71; likelihood ≥81%). Half-liners with greater Yo-Yo performances covered greater relative total and low-speed (ES range = 0.47–0.70; likelihood ≥76%) distances during the subsequent periods than lower fitness players. Conclusion: Developing physical fitness may enable greater peak and subsequent period performances and improve players’ abilities to maintain higher average match intensities.

A skill profile of the national women’s Australian football league (AFLW)

ABSTRACT Objectives: To investigate the relationship between technical involvements and (1) winning margins, (2) losing margins and (3) ladder position in the national Australian Football League Women’s competition (AFLW). Methods: The first season of AFLW technical data were analysed. All matches (n = 26) were separated into winning and losing subsets and score margins were recorded. To investigate the influence of technical involvements on overall performance, final ladder position was also recorded. Results: Uncontested possessions and the ratio between the number of times the ball was inside the attacking 50-m zone (inside 50s) and goals scored, were identified as the biggest predictors of match outcomes in the AFLW. Larger winning margins were associated with reduced marks “inside 50” and a lower inside 50: goals scored ratio. Kicks and contested marks demonstrated significant relationships with final ladder position, with these involvements decreasing as the ladder position moved closer to eight. Conclusions: Team game plans should promote the importance of finding space and completing a number of passes in the attacking 50-m zone to allow closer shots on goal. Further to this, coaches may need to draft players who are able to “win” marking contests to improve ladder position in the future seasons..