Geraldine Leader

ESTABLISHING EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS USING A RESPONDENT-TYPE TRAINING PROCEDURE III

During three experiments, 35 human, adult subjects across seven experimental conditions (5 subjects in each condition) were exposed to a respondent-type training procedure in which arbitrary stimuli (i.e., nonsense syllables) were presented, one at a time, on a computer screen. In Condition 1, Experiment 1, instructions informed the subjects that the material to be presented during the first stage of the experiment (i.e., the respondent-type training procedure) was related to the second stage (i.e., the equivalence test). Nine nonsense syllables were presented to the subjects in the form of six stimulus pairs: A1 → B1, B1 → C1, A2 → B2, B2 → C2, A3 → B3, B3 → C3. The first stimulus of each pair was presented for 1 s (e.g., A1), the computer screen was cleared for 0.5 s (the within-pair-delay) and the second stimulus in the pair (i.e., B1) was presented for 1 s. The screen cleared for 3 s (i.e., the between-pair-delay) before the next stimulus pair was presented. All six stimulus pairs were presented 10 times in a quasi-random order across 60 trials. Subjects were presented with a standard matching-to-sample equivalence test that examined the six symmetry relations (i.e., B1-A1, B2-A2, B3-A3, C1-B1, C2-B2, C3-B3) and the three equivalence relations (i.e., C1-A1, C2-A2, C3-A3). All five subjects demonstrated equivalence responding after two, three, or four exposures to the training and testing. The remaining six conditions, across the three experiments, showed that the effectiveness of the respondent-type training procedure in producing equivalence responding was dependent upon (a) the presence of longer between-pair-delays relative to the within-pair-delays and (b) the sequence in which the stimulus pairs were presented.

Comparison of Behavioral Intervention and Sensory-Integration Therapy in the Treatment of Challenging Behavior

The objective of the current study was to compare the effects of sensory-integration therapy (SIT) and a behavioral intervention on rates of challenging behavior (including self-injurious behavior) in four children diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder. For each of the participants a functional assessment was conducted to identify the variables maintaining challenging behavior. Results of these assessments were used to design function-based behavioral interventions for each participant. Recommendations for the sensory-integration treatment were designed by an Occupational Therapist, trained in the use of sensory-integration theory and techniques. The sensory-integration techniques were not dependent on the results of the functional assessments. The study was conducted within an alternating treatments design, with initial baseline and final best treatment phase. For each participant, results demonstrated that the behavioral intervention was more effective than the sensory integration therapy in the treatment of challenging behavior. In the best treatment phase, the behavioral intervention alone was implemented and further reduction was observed in the rate of challenging behavior. Analysis of saliva samples revealed relatively low levels of cortisol and very little stress-responsivity across the SIT condition and the behavioral intervention condition, which may be related to the participants’ capacity to perceive stress in terms of its social significance.

MATCHING-TO-SAMPLE AND RESPONDENT-TYPE TRAINING AS METHODS FOR PRODUCING EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS: ISOLATING THE CRITICAL VARIABLE

The purpose of this study was to compare systematically the effectiveness of the respondent-type training procedure and the matching-to-sample training procedure. In Experiment 1, a within-subject design was used, to compare the effectiveness of the two procedures. In Condition 1, students were trained using the respondent-type training procedure (60 training trials) and tested for the emergence of symmetry and equivalence responding using a matching-to-sample test. Students were subsequently trained using the matching-to-sample training procedure (60 training trials) and tested using a matching-to-sample test. In Condition 2, the order of the training and testing was reversed (i.e., i, MTS training; ii, MTS test, iii, respondent training; iv, MTS test). Experiment 2 was identical to Experiment 1, except that during matching-to-sample training subjects were required to produce 12 consecutively correct responses before an equivalence test. During respondent-type training students were presented with 12 training trials. Experiment 3 was identical to Experiment 2 except that the two negative comparisons were removed from matching-to-sampte training. Experiment 4 was identical to Experiment 3 except that the correct comparison appeared to the right, center, or left of the screen and three response keys were used. In Experiments 1, 2, and 3 respondent-type training was more effective than matching-to-sample training. In Experiment 4 when the negative comparisons were removed from matching-to-sample training and when the spatial position of the correct comparison varied both procedures were equally effective.

Defining social inclusion of people with intellectual and developmental disabilities: An ecological model of social networks and community participation §

Social inclusion is an important goal for people with intellectual and developmental disabilities, families, service providers, and policymakers; however, the concept of social inclusion remains unclear, largely due to multiple and conflicting definitions in research and policy. We define social inclusion as the interaction between two major life domains: interpersonal relationships and community participation. We then propose an ecological model of social inclusion that includes individual, interpersonal, organizational, community, and socio-political factors. We identify four areas of research that our ecological model of social inclusion can move forward: (1) organizational implementation of social inclusion; (2) social inclusion of people with intellectual and developmental disabilities living with their families, (3) social inclusion of people along a broader spectrum of disability, and (4) the potential role of self-advocacy organizations in promoting social inclusion.

The Effect of Stimulus Salience on Over-selectivity

The influence of stimulus salience on over-selective responding was investigated in the context of a comparator theory of over-selectivity. In Experiments 1 and 2, participants were presented with two cards, each displaying two colors. In comparison to matched control participants, participants with Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD) demonstrated more over-selectivity, which increased when the stimuli differed in salience. In Experiment 3, the over-selected color was extinguished, and the previously under-selected color emerged to control behavior. The results suggest that stimuli of different salience may trigger over-selectivity in individuals with ASD, and provide preliminary support that this may be due to the action of an over-sensitive comparator mechanism functioning at the retrieval level of processing.

Extinction of Over-selected Stimuli Causes Emergence of Under-selected Cues in Higher-functioning Children with Autistic Spectrum Disorders

Two experiments examined whether over-selectivity is the product of a post-acquisition performance deficit, rather than an attention problem. In both experiments, children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder were presented with a trial-and-error discrimination task using two, two-element stimuli and over-selected in both studies. After behavioral control by the previously over-selected stimulus was extinguished, behavioral control by the previously under-selected cue emerged without direct training. However, this effect was only found in higher-functioning children, and not with more severely impaired children. These findings suggest that over-selectivity is not simply due to a failure to attend to all of the stimuli presented. They also suggest that extinction of over-selected stimuli may be a fruitful line of intervention for clinical intervention for some individuals.

9 New Procedures for establishing emergent matching performances in children and adults: Implications for stimulus equivalence

Publisher Summary The chapter discusses new procedures for establishing emergent matching performances in children and adults. It describes a series of studies showing that conditional relations among stimuli may arise as a function of spatial contiguity (compounded stimuli) and temporal contiguity (sequential presentations of individual stimuli). Two studies showing how emergent matching performances can be established via compound stimulus control and simple discriminations are described. The first half of the chapter describes two studies showing how emergent matching performances can be established via compound stimulus control and simple discriminations. Two types of behavioral controls are utilized separately in equivalence studies. The type of procedure described in the chapter is the first to combine both simple discriminations and compound stimulus controls as a means of generating emergent matching behaviors. The chapter describes experiments showing novel conditional stimulus relations emanating from temporal contiguity and considers the way in which these experiments help to identify and analyze at least some of the important variables that generate response in accordance with equivalence relations.

Establishing Fraction-Decimal Equivalence Using A Respondent-Type Training Procedure

The purpose of this study was to teach children fractiondecimal equivalence using the respondent-type training procedure and test for any emergent generalization. In the first experiment, subjects were respondently trained on the conditional discriminations; A1→B1, A2→B2, and tested B1-A1, B2-A2. Subjects were then trained on the conditional discriminations C1→B1, C2→B2 and tested B1-C1, B2-C2. Subjects were subsequently tested for the emergence of the untrained relations A-C and C-A. When subjects were presented with the Stimulus A1 they observed 1/4 and when subjects were presented with A2 they observed 2/4. When subjects were presented with B1 they observed a circle with the upper left quarter shaded and when subjects were presented with B2 they observed a circle divided into four quarters with the upper half shaded. When subjects were presented with C1 they observed 0.25 and when subjects were presented with C2 they observed 0.50. Experiment 2 was identical to Experiment 1 except that subjects were administered three generalization tests. In Generalization Test Number 1, the Stimuli A1, A2, C1, and C2 served as samples and shapes not seen in training but with the same shaded areas served as comparison stimuli. Generalization Test No.2 was identical to the previous test, except that the comparison stimuli consisted of a shape not seen in training and the shaded area was altered. Generalization Test No. 3 was identical to the previous two tests except that the comparison stimuli were altered in that the number of shaded and unshaded areas was increased. Experiment 3 was identical to Experiment 2 except that an extra generalization test was added to the experiment. This test was identical to Generalization Test No. 3 of Experiment 2, except that the shaded areas were contiguous with each other.In Experiment 1, subjects were successful on all equivalence

Parenting Stress, Salivary Biomarkers, and Ambulatory Blood Pressure: A Comparison Between Mothers and Fathers of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders

Parents of children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) may experience higher levels of stress and health problems than parents of children with typical development. However, most research has focused on mothers, with emphasis on parent-reported stress and wellbeing. This study compared parenting responsibility, distress, anxiety, depression, cortisol, alpha-amylase, and cardiovascular activity between 19 mother–father dyads of children with ASD. Mothers reported higher parenting responsibility, distress, anxiety, and depression than fathers, while fathers had higher blood pressure and heart rate variability. Mothers and fathers had lower than average morning cortisol levels, suggesting stress effects on the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal-axis. Parents of children with ASD may benefit from routine health screening (particularly adrenal and cardiovascular function) and referral for stress reduction interventions or supports.

An analysis of challenging behavior, comorbid psychopathology, and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Fragile X Syndrome.

The present study sought to investigate the relationship between challenging behavior, comorbid psychopathology, and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (AD/HD) in Fragile X Syndrome (FRAX). Additionally, this study sought to examine how such disorders are predicted by gender, presence of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and presence of intellectual disability (ID). A total of 47 children and adolescents with FRAX were assessed. Results revealed high levels of challenging behavior and AD/HD symptoms within the sample, with some participants exhibiting symptoms of comorbid psychopathology. Further analysis revealed that challenging behavior and comorbid psychopathology were positively correlated, with stereotypy correlating most strongly with comorbid psychopathology. In addition, ASD was found to predict challenging behavior, and gender was found to predict AD/HD symptoms. The implications of these findings are discussed.