Gerardo Marin

A New Measurement of Acculturation for Hispanics: The Bidimensional Acculturation Scale for Hispanics (BAS):

This article reports the development ofa bidimensional acculturation scaleforHispanics (BAS). The scale provides an acculturation score for two major cultural dimensions (Hispanic and non-Hispanic domains) by including 12 items (per cultural domain) that measure three language-related areas. A random sample of 254 adult Hispanics was surveyed to develop and validate the scale. The scores obtained with the BAS show high internal consistency and high validity coefficients. The scale works well with Mexican Americans and with Central Americans.

Simpatía as a cultural script of Hispanics.

Abstract : A cultural script is a pattern of social interaction which is characteristic of a particular cultural group. Simpatia, and its component harmony, or the emphasis on positive behaviors in positive situations (e.g., complimenting somebody who has done a good job) and the de-emphasis of negative behaviors in negative situations (e.g., criticising) may be a Hispanic cultural script. Lower status individuals are not supposed to show aggression even when their rights are taken away. The data indicate that Hispanic recruits expect more positive behaviors in positive social situations and de-emphasize the appropriateness of negative behaviors in situations of conflict, particularly when the actor is of lower status. The implications of these findings for the Navy is that Hispanics are likely to have higher levels of expectations concerning the appropriateness of positive behaviors (e.g., receiving a compliment if they do a good job) than Mainstream recruits. Thus, they will feel underrewarded in situations where they do a good job. Conversely, they will expect less expression of criticism from lower status individuals, and therefore even mild criticism from such individuals might be seen as extreme criticism. (Author)

The measurement of the etic aspects of individualism and collectivism across cultures

The dimension of individualism-collectivism, as identified by Hofstede (1980), was studied using items developed both theoretically and emically in nine diverse cultures. The dimension was found to be analysable into four stable etic factors: Individualism had two aspects (Separation from Ingroups and Self-Reliance with Hedonism) and collectivism had two aspects (Family Integrity and Interdependence with Sociability). These four factors are orthogonal to each other. The location of nine cultures on these four factors was used to compute a “collectivism” score which correlated r = + · 73 with Hofstedes (1980) collectivism scores for the nine cultures. This approach enables the measurement of individualism-collectivism in each culture as well as across cultures, and shows that different methods for measuring individualism-collectivism converge.

Extreme Response Style and Acquiescence among Hispanics The Role of Acculturation and Education

Secondary analyses were carried out with four large data sets that included responses by Hispanics (N = 1,908) and by non-Hispanic Whites (N = 14,425). Results are fairly consistent in showing that Hispanics prefer extreme responses to a greater extent than non-Hispanic Whites. In general, Hispanics prefer to agree with a given item more than non-Hispanic Whites. Two significant variables seem to affect the rate at which these response styles are chosen. First, the level of acculturation among Hispanics affects the level of extreme and acquiescent responses so that as Hispanics acculturate they tend to choose these types of response less frequently. The less educated respondents (less than 12 years of formal education) tend to make more extreme choices than the more highly educated (those with at least a secondary education). Gender does not affect these response sets in a consistent fashion.

Cigarette smoking among San Francisco Hispanics: the role of acculturation and gender.

We conducted a phone survey of 1,669 San Francisco Hispanics ages 15 to 64 years. The age-adjusted overall smoking prevalence was 25.4 per cent (95% CI = 23.3, 27.5) with more men (32.4 per cent) smoking than women (16.8 per cent). Age-adjusted smoking rates were higher among the less acculturated males (37.5 vs 26.7 per cent) and among the more acculturated females (22.6 vs 13.6 per cent). The more acculturated, however, smoked a greater number of cigarettes per day independent of gender. Community-based smoking cessation interventions, adapted to local conditions, may have a greater potential for success among Hispanics.

Defining culturally appropriate community interventions: Hispanics as a case study

This article proposes three components that are needed in order to develop communitywide change interventions that are culturally appropriate or group-specific. The basis for the development of targeted group-specific interventions is the quickly accumulating evidence that shows that ethnic and/or racial groups differ in terms of their cultural values, norms, expectancies, and attitudes. These differences predicate the notion that in order to be effective, community interventions need to take into consideration the specific characteristics of the group being targeted. Culturally appropriate community interventions are defined, therefore, as meeting each of the following characteristics: (a) The intervention is based on the cultural values of the group, (b) the strategies that make up the intervention reflect the subjective culture (attitudes, expectancies, norms) of the group, and (c) the components that make up the strategies reflect the behavioral preferences and expectations of the groups members. The implications of this definition for the development of a culturally appropriate intervention for Hispanics are also discussed.

A Research Agenda for Health Education Among Underserved Populations

This article summarizes the outcome of health education efforts among populations that, due to their cultural heritage, have received limited services. The literature reviewed shows that programs found to be effective in one population cannot be assumed to be equally effective with a different population. An argument is made for the design of culturally appropriate and group-specific interventions which would properly serve the various underserved populations. Research needs to be conducted to identify appropriate approaches and intervention strategies, as well as the group-specific sociopsychological characteristics (attitudes, norms, values, expectan cies) that are related to health-damaging and protective behaviors.

Ethnic comparison of attitudes and beliefs about cigarette smoking.

AbstractOBJECTIVE: To determine if hypothesized differences in attitudes and beliefs about cigarette smoking between Latino and non-Latino white smokers are independent of years of formal education and number of cigarettes smoked per day. DESIGN: Cross-sectional survey using a random digit dial telephone method. SETTING: San Francisco census tracts with at least 10% Latinos in the 1990 Census. PARTICIPANTS: Three hundred twelve Latinos (198 men and 114 women) and 354 non-Latino whites (186 men and 168 women), 18 to 65 years of age, who were current cigarette smokers participated. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Self-reports of cigarette smoking behavior, antecedents to smoking, reasons to quit smoking, and reasons to continue smoking were the measures. Latino smokers were younger (36.6 vs 39.6 years, p<.01), had fewer years of education (11.0 vs 14.3 years, p<.001), and smoked on average fewer cigarettes per day (9.7 vs 20.1, p<.001). Compared with whites, Latino smokers were less likely to report smoking “almost always or often” after 13 of 17 antecedents (each p<.001), and more likely to consider it important to quit for 12 of 15 reasons (each p<.001). In multivariate analyses after adjusting for gender, age, education, income, and number of cigarettes smoked per day, Latino ethnicity was a significant predictor of being less likely to smoke while talking on the telephone (odds ratio [OR] 0.41; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.26, 0.64), drinking alcoholic beverages (OR 0.66; 95% CI 0.44, 0.99), after eating (OR 0.55, 95% CI 0.37, 0.81), or at a bar (OR 0.62, 95% CI 0.41, 0.94), and a significant predictor of being more likely to smoke at a party (OR 1.72; 95% CI 1.14, 2.60). Latino ethnicity was a significant predictor of considering quitting important because of being criticized by family (OR 1.93; 95% CI 1.26, 2.98), burning clothes (OR 1.57; 95% CI 1.02, 2.42), damaging children’s health (OR 1.67; 95% CI 1.08, 2.57), bad breath (OR 2.07; 95% CI 1.40, 3.06), family pressure (OR 1.67; 95% CI 1.10, 2.60), and being a good example to children (OR 1.83; 95% CI 1.21, 2.76). CONCLUSIONS: Differences in attitudes and beliefs about cigarette smoking between Latinos and whites are independent of education and number of cigarettes smoked. We recommend that these ethnic differences be incorporated into smoking cessation interventions for Latino smokers.

Factor Variability of the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) Among Urban Latinos

Establishing comparable measurement properties across different populations or in different population subgroups is a crucial yet often neglected step in instrument development. Failure to have comparable factor structures across groups makes any comparison between groups suspect. Previous analyses of the measurement structure of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) in diverse racial/ethnic populations have resulted in conflicting results. In the present analysis, data from three studies of urban Latinos (N = 1403) were analyzed using structural equation modeling techniques to (1) fit the original four-factor solution separately in men and women; (2) evaluate configural and metric invariance between men and women; and (3) evaluate the mediating effects of age and acculturation on the fit of this model to the data. Results indicated that the four-factor model proposed by Radloff provided adequate fit to the data for Latina women when age and acculturation were included in the model. The four-factor model did not fit the data for Latino men; thus tests of configural and metric invariance across these two groups failed. We conclude that the CES-D may not measure the same constructs in Latino men and women and that further evaluation of the use of this measure in diverse populations is needed. Additionally, prior to comparison with other groups in which the four-factor solution is observed, the effects of age and acculturation should be controlled in Latinas.

The Role of Acculturation in the Attitudes, Norms, and Expectancies of Hispanic Smokers

Data from 263 Hispanic smokers in the San Francisco area showed that, in general, among the highly acculturated, attitudes, norms, and expectancies toward smoking resembled those held by an equivalent group of white non-Hispanic smokers. Level of acculturation had no significant effect on generalized attitudes toward smoking, but it was associated with the level of certainty with which five stereotypes were assigned to smokers. Acculturation level also affected the perceived normative influence of parents and the willingness to follow the desires of parents and physician. Acculturation had a more significant effect on discriminating the importance assigned to antecedents and consequences of smoking; responses of the highly acculturated again resembled those of the white non-Hispanics. The implications of these findings in the development of culturally appropriate smoking cessation materials for less acculturated Hispanics are discussed.