Gerhard Gottsberger

Flower scent composition in night-flowering Silene species (Caryophyllaceae)

Abstract Floral scent of 13 night-flowering Silene species (Caryophyllaceae) was collected by headspace adsorption and analysed via gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. Benzenoids together with isoprenoids dominated the scent in all species. Among the benzenoids, benzaldehyde ( Silene subconica 35.5%, Silene succulenta 23.1%, Silene sericea 15.6%, Silene vulgaris 12.2%, and Silene nutans 9.9%), methylbenzoate ( Silene saxifraga 96.1%, S. succulenta 15.2%), benzyl acetate ( Silene dichotoma 37.8%, S. nutans 30.1%, Silene italica 9.0%, and Silene latifolia 5.5%), or benzyl alcohol ( Silene viscosa 36.1%) occur in the largest amounts. p -Cresol is only found in the floral scent of S. dichotoma (28.5%). Among the isoprenoids, monoterpenes occur in the largest amounts (myrcene 23% in Silene chlorantha , trans -β-ocimene 27.2% in S. nutans and 34.9% in S. sericea , fenchyl acetate 12.7% in S. chlorantha , β-linalool 40.5% in S. chlorantha and 14.5% in S. italica ). Relatively high amounts of lilac compounds occur in S. latifolia (49.1%), Silene otites (35.7%), S. subconica (15.2%), and S. vulgaris (59.6%). Higher amounts of sesquiterpenes (isoprenoids) were only found in Silene vallesia with β-bourbonene and γ-muurolene. The vast majority of chemicals identified are common components of a wide array of scented angiosperm flowers. Nevertheless, the results conform most strongly with the findings in other night-blooming and/or moth-pollinated flowers. All investigated Silene species follow the general trend of floral scent compounds typical for moth-pollinated flowers, i.e. flowers having acyclic terpene alcohols (e.g. linalool), aromatic alcohols (benzyl alcohol, 2-phenylethanol) and esters derived from them, and small amounts of nitrogen-containing compounds.

Floral scent compounds of Amazonian Annonaceae species pollinated by small beetles and thrips.

Chemical analysis (GC-MS) yielded a total of 58 volatile compounds in the floral scents of six species of Annonaceae distributed in four genera (Xylopia, Anaxagorea, Duguetia, and Rollinia), Xylopia aromatica is pollinated principally by Thysanoptera and secondarily by small beetles (Nitidulidae and Staphylinidae), whereas the five other species were pollinated by Nitidulidae and Staphylinidae only. Although the six Annonaceae species attract a similar array of pollinator groups, the major constituents of their floral scents are of different biochemical origin. The fragrances of flowers of Anaxagorea brevipes and Anaxagorea dolichocarpa were dominated by esters of aliphatic acids (ethyl 2-methylbutanoate, ethyl 3-methylbutanoate), which were not detected in the other species. Monoterpenes (limonene, p-cymene, alpha-pinene) were the main scent compounds of Duguetia asterotricha, and naphthalene prevailed in the scent of Rollinia insignis flowers. The odors of X. aromatica and Xylopia benthamii flowers were dominated by high amounts of benzenoids (methylbenzoate, 2-phenylethyl alcohol).

Pollen grain numbers, ovule numbers and pollen-ovule ratios in Caryophylloideae: correlation with breeding system, pollination, life form, style number, and sexual system

Abstract. Pollen-ovule ratios (P/O) were measured for 79 species of Caryophylloideae (Agrostemma, Dianthus, Saponaria, Silene, and Vaccaria). We analyzed if these features are best correlated with (1) the breeding system (outcrossing or selfing), (2) diurnal or nocturnal pollination, (3) life form (annual versus perennial), (4) style number, (5) the sexual system (hermaphroditism, gynodioecism, dioecism), or (6) the taxonomy of species. According to the classification of Cruden [(1977) Evolution 31:32–46] most species in the subfamily Caryophylloideae are facultative autogamous or facultative xenogamous. Autogamous or cleistogamous species showed significantly lower P/Os than outcrossing species. We found no differences between night- and day-flowering species; thus from our data diurnal and nocturnal flower visitors may be considered as equally efficient in transferring pollen. However, other factors are also important for the interpretation of P/Os. Pollen grain numbers and ovule numbers were found to correlate with style number, life form, and breeding system. The low P/Os of some dioecious, and therefore obligate outcrossing, species are discussed in relation to morphological traits that improve pollen deposition by pollinators on the stigma, and in relation to different flower numbers of male and female plants.

Olfactory and visual attraction of Erioscelis emarginata (Cyclocephalini, Dynastinae) to the inflorescences of Philodendron selloum (Araceae)

Observations and experiments show that Erioscelis emarginata (Dynastinae, Scarabaeidae), the sole pollinator of Philodendron selloum (Araceae), is guided at dusk to the inflorescences in their female stage by a combination of olfactory and visual stimuli. At close range, visual stimuli are induced by olfactory stimuli and the beetles orient themselves by the light inner side of the spathe. Light models are more attractive than dark ones. Nonfragrant spathes or spathe models, which are put closest to the odor sources, are most visited. Odoriferous inflorescences in the female stage emit stimuli for Erioscelis that are present to remain, while in male-stage inflorescences such stimuli are absent. Light inhibits beetles from leaving male-stage inflorescences.

Flower scent composition in Dianthus and Saponaria species (Caryophyllaceae) and its relevance for pollination biology and taxonomy

Abstract Floral fragrance compounds of seven Dianthus species ( D. arenarius , D. armeria , D. barbatus , D. deltoides , D. monspessulanus , D. superbus, and D. sylvestris ) and one Saponaria species ( S. officinalis ) (Caryophyllaceae) were studied using headspace adsorption technique followed by gas chromatography massspectrometry (GC-MS). The number of compounds (fatty acid derivatives, benzenoids, phenyl propanoids, isoprenoids, and nitrogen containing compounds) identified in the floral odors ranged from 18 to 51 but all were dominated by only 1–3 compounds. Most of the compounds identified in this study have been previously reported in floral scents from species of the closely related genus Silene L. However, the phenyl propanoids eugenol, methyleugenol, methylisoeugenol, cis -asarone, and trans -asarone have formerly not been found in Silene . Based on the measurement of Sorensen’s index of similarity ( I s ) nonmetric multidimensional scaling (MDS) was used to detect meaningful underlying dimensions and to visualize similarities between the investigated species. The MDS analysis showed three groups of species, (1) the diurnal D. armeria , D. barbatus , and D. deltoides are characterized by the predominance of fatty acid derivatives, (2) the closely related nocturnal D. monspessulanus , and D. superbus by high relative amounts of isoprenoids such as cis -β-ocimene and β-caryophyllene, and (3) the species D. arenarius , D. sylvestris and S. officinalis by a predominance of benzenoids, especially methylbenzoate. The results are discussed in relation to pollination, especially by butterflies, moths, and hawkmoths.

A polinização e sua relação com a termogênese em espécies de Arecaceae e Annonaceae da Amazônia Central

The present study is a comparison of the flower biology and pollination of some thermogenic species of palms and Annonaceae. In the palms eleven representatives of the genera Astrocaryum, Attalea, Bactris, and Oenocarpus, and in the Annonaceae nine representatives of the genera Anaxagorea, Duguetia, and Xylopia were studied in the region of Manaus (AM). All the studied palm species are monoecious and the anthesis of their inflorescences occurs at night during a period which varies from two days to five weeks. The investigated species of the Annonaceae are protogynous with the anthesis of a single flower lasting for two days and occurring at night or during the day. Flower visiting insects are attracted by strong odours which are intensified through thermogenesis. The species-specific odours range from fruit-like to unpleasant and pungent. Most of the flower visiting insects are beetles of the families Scarabaeidae, Nitidulidae, Staphylinidae, Curculionidae, and Chrysomelidae, and additionally thrips and drosophilid flies. Further insects which visit the flowers are bees, wasps, ants, and other fly groups. However, palms and Annonaceae with thermogenic flowers most frequently showed beetle pollination. It is notable that flowers of some species of both families were visited bythe same families and even species of beetles, which might be due to similar morphological and physiological adaptations of the flowers, including production of similar odour components.

Über sphingophile Angiospermen Brasiliens

In order to study the functional differentiation in flowers of 15 sphingophilous Brazilian Angiosperms, anthesis, flower morphology, flower odours and the behaviour of visiting animals were investigated. All 15 species were found to have nocturnal anthesis, but only 13 proved to be predominantly visited by hawk-moths. Of the 3Lafoensia populations studied, one was pollinated only by hawk-moths, one was chiropterophilous and one had a mixed bat-moth pollination; there are corresponding differences in flower dimensions.

Flowering, pollination, nectar standing crop, and nectaries ofEuterpe precatoria (Arecaceae), an Amazonian rain forest palm

Flowering and pollination biology of the monoecious palmEuterpe precatoria was studied in the forest of the “Reserva Ducke” near Manaus, Brazil, during two annual flowering periods (middle of October to end of March) between 1991 and 1993. Individuals produced one to four bisexual inflorescences per flowering period. Inflorescences have staminate and pistillate flowers in triads. The anthesis of the whole inflorescence averaged 26 days, with the male phase extending over the first 17 days, followed by six days without any open flowers, and the female phase covering the last three days. The distinct dichogamy of the inflorescence results in obligate outcrossing. The pollen-ovule ratio is high (42000). Both male and female flowers emit an almond oil-like scent and produce nectar in septal nectaries. The concentration and total amount of sugar of the nectar of female flowers (37% and 0.021 mg) were significantly higher than that of male flowers (9% and 0.007 mg). The nectar is hexose-rich and with a moderately high amino acid concentration (68 µg/ml).Euterpe precatoria seems to be a generally entomophilous palm with a predominance of beetles and bees as potential pollinators. The most constant visitors were beetles of the familiesCurculionidae, Chrysomelidae, Staphylinidae, and bees of the familyHalictidae. The actual composition of the insect spectrum depends on climatic and biotic factors. Additionally, wind pollination may occur. Fruit development lasted four months and ripe fruits are swallowed by toucans who thus disperse the seeds.

VARIATION ON THE POPULATION, RACIAL, AND SPECIES LEVEL IN THE PRIMITIVE RELIC ANGIOSPERM GENUS DRIMYS (WINTERACEAE) IN SOUTH-AMERICA

Statistical analyses and scatter diagrams illustrate for the polymorphic E. and SE. BrazilianDrimys brasiliensis a clear correlation between morphological variation and eco-geographical differentiation. This is backed by data on the (ultra)structure of the lower leaf surface. A new infraspecific taxonomy is proposed, andD. roraimensis andD. angustifolia are recognized as distinct species of the Guyana Highlands and S. Brazil, respectively. The affinities between these and other taxa of the paleopolyploid genus, its evolution and its position within the family are discussed.

Evidence for Behavioral Attractiveness of Methoxylated Aromatics in a Dynastid Scarab Beetle-Pollinated Araceae

Many plants attract their pollinators with floral scents, and these olfactory signals are especially important at night, when visual signals become inefficient. Dynastid scarab beetles are a speciose group of night-active pollinators, and several plants pollinated by these insects have methoxylated aromatic compounds in their scents. However, there is a large gap in our knowledge regarding the compounds responsible for beetle attraction. We used chemical analytical analyses to determine temporal patterns of scent emission and the composition of scent released from inflorescences of Philodendron selloum. The attractiveness of the main components in the scent to the dynastid scarab beetle Erioscelis emarginata, the exclusive pollinator of this plant, was assessed in field biotests. The amount of scent increased rapidly in the evening, and large amounts of scent were released during the activity time of the beetle pollinators. Inflorescences emitted a high number of compounds of different biosynthetic origin, among them both uncommon and also widespread flower scents. Methoxylated aromatic compounds dominated the scent, and 4-methoxystyrene, the most abundant compound, attracted E. emarginata beetles. Other compounds, such as (Z)-jasmone and possibly also the methoxylated aromatic compound 3,4-dimethoxystyrene increased the attractiveness of 4-methoxystyrene. Methoxylated aromatics, which are known from other dynastid pollinated plants as well, are important signals in many scarab beetles in a different context (e.g., pheromones), thus suggesting that these plants exploit pre-existing preferences of the beetles for attracting this group of insects as pollinators.