Gerhard Kling

Pathways to Power: Class, Hyper-Agency and the French Corporate Elite

This paper explores pathways to power from the perspective of the French corporate elite. It compares those who enter the ‘field of power’ with those who fail to reach this final tier. Adopting an innovative econometric approach, we develop and test three hypotheses. These underline the pivotal role of external networks and the strategic advantage of hyper-agency in maintaining power; and indicate that social origin remains a powerful driver in determining success. Birthright and meritocracy emerge as two competing institutional logics which influence life chances. Higher-status agents benefit from mutual recognition which enhances their likelihood of co-option to the extra-corporate networks that facilitate hyper-agency. The objectification of class-based differences conceals their arbitrary nature while institutionalizing the principles informing stratification. We re-connect class analysis with organizational theory, arguing that social origin exerts an enduring influence on selection dynamics which inform processes of hierarchical reproduction in the corporate elite and society at large.

The Effects of Cross-border and Cross-industry Mergers and Acquisitions on Home-region and Global Multinational Enterprises

We examine the effects of international and product diversification through mergers and acquisitions (M&As) on the firms risk–return profile. We identify the rewards from different types of M&As and investigate whether becoming a global firm is a value‐enhancing strategy. Drawing on the theoretical work of Vachani (Journal of International Business Studies, 22 (1991), pp. 307−222) and on Rugman and Verbekes (Journal of International Business Studies, 35 (2004), pp. 3−18) metrics, we classify firms according to their degree of international and product diversification. To account for the endogeneity of M&As, we develop a panel vector autoregression. We find that global and host‐region multinational enterprises benefit from cross‐border M&As that reinforce their geographical footprint. Cross‐industry M&As enhance the risk–return profile of home‐region firms. This effect depends on the degree of product diversification. Hence there is no value‐enhancing M&A strategy for home‐region and bi‐regional firms to become ‘truly global’.

Endogenous mergers: bidder momentum and market reaction

Recent empirical studies on stock misvaluation as a possible determinant of mergers are inconclusive concerning the central hypothesis that over (under) valuation is negatively (positively) associated with merger announcement returns in stock mergers, but not in cash mergers. We provide empirical support for this hypothesis. In contrast to prior research, we employ a two-stage model to account for endogenous mergers and suggest an alternative specification of misvaluation based on an asset-pricing model (bidder momentum). In the first stage, we specify panel logit models to predict US mergers from 1981 to 2003 and find that bidder momentum triggers stock mergers, but not cash mergers. In the second stage, we regress cumulated abnormal returns on merger probabilities to control for the endogeneity of mergers. This reveals a lower market response for stock mergers compared to cash mergers, which we identify as market correction of misvalued acquirers.

Equity transfers and market reactions: Evidence from Chinese stock markets

Our logit models explain positive or negative short–term market reactions due to equity transfers in China. In contrast to former studies, we classify transfers into private transactions, privatisations, transfers among state–owned enterprises (SOEs) and nationalisations. We control for uncompensated transactions, transfers of holding rights, replacements of the CEO and related party transactions. Privatisations trig–ger positive responses, whereas nationalisations cause declining stock prices. The market appreciates reforms in the state–owned sector if reorganisations include the transfer of holding rights and not just replacing the CEO. Uncompensated transfers and non–transparent transactions of related parties diminish gains for minority shareholders.

Predictability of future economic growth and the credibility of monetary regimes in Germany, 1870–2003

Our study tries to quantify the predictability of economic growth and links it to the capability of regimes to fight against inflation. A regime with a high persistence of inflation and, hence, low credibility exhibits a high level of predictability of economic growth using the yield curve as indicator. Based on structural VAR models, we evaluate the credibility of monetary regimes in Germany from 1870 to 2003. The period of the Classical Gold Standard exhibited the highest credibility compared to the interwar period, the Bretton Woods and free float era. The reliability of the Bretton Woods agreement deteriorated years before the official breakdown in 1971.

Business elites and the field of power in France

Bourdieu’s construct of the field of power has received relatively little attention despite its novelty and theoretical potential. This paper explores the meaning and implications of the construct, and integrates it into a wider conception of the formation and functioning of elites at the highest level in society. Drawing on an extensive dataset profiling the careers of members of the French business elite, it compares and contrasts those who enter the field of power with those who fail to qualify for membership, exploring why some succeed as hyper-agents while others do not. The alliance of social origin and educational attainment, class and meritocracy, emerges as particularly compelling. The field of power is shown to be relatively variegated and fluid, connecting agents from different life worlds. Methodologically, this paper connects biographical data of top French directors with the field of power in France in a novel way, while presenting an operationalization of Bourdieu’s concept of the field of power as applied to the French elite.

Establishing Causal Order in Longitudinal Studies Combining Binary and Continuous Dependent Variables

Longitudinal studies with a mix of binary outcomes and continuous variables are common in organizational research. Selecting the dependent variable is often difficult due to conflicting theories and contradictory empirical studies. In addition, organizational researchers are confronted with methodological challenges posed by latent variables relating to observed binary outcomes and within-subject correlation. We draw on Dueker’s qualitative vector autoregression (QVAR) and Lunn, Osorio, and Whittaker’s multivariate probit model to develop a solution to these problems in the form of a qualitative short panel vector autoregression (QSP-VAR). The QSP-VAR combines binary and continuous variables into a single vector of dependent variables, making every variable endogenous a priori. The QSP-VAR identifies causal order, reveals within-subject correlation, and accounts for latent variables. Using a Bayesian approach, the QSP-VAR provides reliable inference for short time dimension longitudinal research. This is demonstrated through analysis of the durability of elite corporate agents, social networks, and firm performance in France. We provide our OpenBUGS code to enable implementation of the QSP-VAR by other researchers.

A Theory of Operational Cash Holding, Endogenous Financial Constraints and Credit Rationing

This paper develops a theory of operational cash holding. Liquidity shocks due to delayed payments must be financed using cash or short-term debt. Debt holders provide an irrevocable credit line given a firms expected insolvency risk, and equity holders select optimum cash holding. The model demonstrates the trade-off between cash holding and investing in fixed assets. Introducing uncertain cash flows leads to precautionary cash holding if debt holders impose financial constraints. Precautionary cash holding, in turn, reduces insolvency risk enhancing access to short-term finance. The theory shows that credit rationing can occur in the absence of market frictions. Using U.S. data from 1998 to 2012, empirical findings suggest that the decline in credit lines has contributed to the increase in cash holding in line with theoretical predictions.

Elite business networks and the field of power: A matter of class?

We explore the meaning and implications of Bourdieu’s construct of the field of power and integrate it into a wider conception of the formation and functioning of elites at the highest level in society. Corporate leaders active within the field of power hold prominent roles in numerous organizations, constituting an ‘elite of elites’, whose networks integrate powerful participants from different fields. As ‘bridging actors’, they form coalitions to determine institutional settlements and societal resource flows. We ask how some corporate actors (minority) become hyper-agents, those actors who ‘make things happen’, while others (majority) remain ‘ordinary’ members of the elite. Three hypotheses are developed and tested using extensive data on the French business elite. Social class emerges as persistently important, challenging the myth of meritocratic inclusion. Our primary contribution to Bourdieusian scholarship lies in our analysis of hyper-agents, revealing the debts these dominants owe to elite schools and privileged classes.

Sold below value? Why Some Takeover Offers have Negative Premiums

Although many studies have acknowledged the existence of negative offer premiums, where the initial bid undercuts the targets pre-announcement market price, this phenomenon has remained unexplained. Negative premiums occur frequently and are no measurement error. We show theoretically and empirically that negative premiums can be rationally explained with ‘hidden earnouts,’ where target shareholders participate in the bidders share of joint synergies, and with corrections of target overvaluation. We find that target shareholders profit from the consummation of a takeover even if the announced offer has a negative premium.