Gerhard Langenberger

Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants utilised by Hani ethnicity in Naban River Watershed National Nature Reserve, Yunnan, China.

AIM OF THE STUDY This study was conducted in the Naban River Watershed National Nature Reserve to identify and analyse knowledge and use of wild plants for medicinal purposes by Hani ethnicity and to search out culturally as well as economically important plant species and land use types. MATERIAL AND METHODS Ethnobotanical data was collected using freelisting interviews with randomly selected informants and semi-structured as well as field interviews. Plant specimens were collected, identified and deposited at the Herbarium of Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Mengla, Yunnan Province, China. Data were analysed by use-reports, in addition important indices like relative frequency of citation (RFC) and cultural importance index (CI) were calculated. Smiths salience index was assessed using Anthropac 4.08. Consensus analysis was applied to measure informant agreement on plants used in different medicinal use categories. RESULTS A total of 199 medicinal plants belonging to 73 families were recorded. Dominant families are Asteraceae (5.5%), Piperaceae and Verbenaceae (4.5%), Fabaceae, Liliaceae (4.0%) and Euphorbiaceae, Lamiaceae and Solanaceae (3.5%). Most culturally salient species from freelisting analysis were Dendrobium crepidatum Lindl. ex Paxt. (Smiths SI=0.41), Aristolochia sp. (0.306), Microstegium ciliatum (Trin.) A. Camus (0.129), Eupatorium coelestinum L. (0.119), Litsea martabanica (Kurz) Hook. F. (0.116) and Psidium guajava L. (0.103). The majority of the utilised species were collected from forest (51.9%), followed by fallow land (22.52%), arable fields (14.5%), and homegardens (11.08%). CONCLUSIONS It became clear that the knowledge of medicinal plants is not homogenously distributed among Hani. Based on the percentage of collected medicinal plants from four habitat types, forest is the most important source of medicinal plants for Hani but when considering the cultural importance of species it seems that homegardens are slightly more important than other habitats.

A comparison of the wild food plant use knowledge of ethnic minorities in Naban River Watershed National Nature Reserve, Yunnan, SW China

BackgroundWild food plants (WFPs) contribute to the nutrition, economy and even cultural identity of people in many parts of the world. Different factors determine the preference and use of WFPs such as abundance, availability, cultural preference, economic conditions, shortage periods or unsecure food production systems. Understanding these factors and knowing the patterns of selection, use and cultural significance and value of wild food plants for local communities is helpful in setting priorities for conservation and/or domestication of these plants. Thus in this study knowledge of wild food plant use among four groups namely Dai, Lahu, Hani and Mountain Han in Naban River Watershed National Nature Reserve ((NRWNNR), Xishuangbanna were documented and analyzed to find the similarity and difference among their plant use.MethodsData on wild food plant use was collected through freelisting and semi-structured interviews and participatory field collection and direct observation. Botanical plant sample specimens were collected, prepared, dried and identified.ResultsA total of 173 species and subspecies from 64 families and one species of lichen (Ramalina sp.) are used as WFP. There were differences on the saliency of wild food plant species among four ethnic groups. Consensus analysis revealed that knowledge of wild food plant use for each ethnic group differs from others with some variation in each group. Among informant attributes only age was related with the knowledge of wild food plant use, whereas no significant relationship was found between gender and age*gender and informants knowledge of wild food plant use.ConclusionWild food plants are still used extensively by local people in the NRWNNR, some of them on a daily base. This diversity of wild food plants provide important source of nutrients for the local communities which much of their caloric intake comes from one or few crops. The results also show the role of ethnicity on the preference and use of wild food plants. There is a big potential for harvesting, participatory domestication and marketing of WFPs especially in the tourism sector in the area.

Vascular Plant Species Inventory of a Philippine Lowland Rain Forest and its Conservation Value

The Philippines are one of the most important biodiveristy hotspots on earth. Due to the extraordinary rate of environmental destruction, leaving only 3% of the land with primary forest, this biodiversity is at high risk. Despite that situation information on Philippine forest vegetation is fragmentary and focused on trees. This study aimed at analysing forest remnants in the Leyte Cordillera on the Island of Leyte, and at evaluating their role as refuge to the largely destroyed lowland forest vegetation. A total of 49 plots (100 m2 each) between 55 and 520 m a.s.l. were studied. All vascular plant species except epiphytes were included. Records include 685 taxa from 289 genera and 111 families, representing nearly 8% of the known Philippine vascular plant species. More than half (52%) of the species are Philippine endemics. A number of 41 tree species, or 6% of all taxa recorded, are included in the IUCN red list, either as vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered. Life form composition was dominated by phanerophytes (65.3%), followed by lianas and chamaephytes (17.1 and 16.9%, respectively). The most common families were the Rubiaceae with 35 and the Euphorbiaceae with 32 species. All five Philippine dipterocarp forest types as well as the molave forest type were represented by typical tree species. The area provides an important gene bank of the highly threatened Philippine lowland forest vegetation and is of high value for biodiversity conservation. Additionally, it can play an important role as seed source of valuable tree species for the increasing initiatives to rehabilitate and reforest degraded land with native species.

Ethnobotanical knowledge of Philippine lowland farmers and its application in agroforestry

Complex agroforestry systems that mimic local forest structure, so-called ‘analogs’, are assumed to be of specific value to rural people as well as the environment. The objective of this study was to document and evaluate the utilization of plant resources by Philippine lowland farmers to identify native species suitable for integration in such a system. The interviewed farmers maintain a comprehensive ethnobotanical knowledge. They reported using 122 plant species for 77 purposes. Eighty species have medicinal value, 35 provide food, and 32 serve other uses. About 64% of the identified species are Philippine natives. The life form composition of these species is dominated by trees but also includes herbs, lianas, and graminoids, thus providing the structural elements required in analog systems. Nevertheless, only a few of the species seem to be promising for cultivation. Many of them are ubiquitous in the vicinity of villages. Some species are also not much appreciated but act as staple food only during food shortage. Even though several of the species have proven market value, such as rattan (e.g. Calamusmerrillii), or are reputed medicines, such as ‘Philippine ginseng’ (Sarcandra glabra), no cultivation could be observed. This shows that usefulness in itself cannot be the only criterion to promote species but that it requires a careful analysis of the marketability of the respective species. In this context we suggest the following three species that are of proven medicinal value for in-depth study: the liana Tinospora crispa (Menispermaceae), the tree Picrasma javanica (Simaroubaceae), and the herb Sarcandra glabra (Chloranthaceae). They represent three different life form strategies and would thus fit well in vertically structured agroforestry systems.

Diversity of Medicinal and Food Plants as Non-timber Forest Products in Naban River Watershed National Nature Reserve (China): Implications for Livelihood Improvement and Biodiversity Conservation

Diversity of Medicinal and Food Plants as Non-timber Forest Products in Naban River Watershed National Nature Reserve (China): Implications for Livelihood Improvement and Biodiversity Conservation. Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) play an important role in rural livelihoods. People living in and around forests are dependent on a variety of NTFPs for their subsistence and for income generation. This paper gives a general overview on the diversity of NTFPs in the Naban River Watershed National Nature Reserve, with a focus on medicinal and food plants. Data on NTFPs use were gathered through an ethnobotanical inventory with semistructured, free-listing, and household socioeconomic interviews. Interviews were supplemented with voucher collections. Bamboo shoots were analyzed further as proxy NTPF. It was hypothesized that there is no significant difference between collection amounts of bamboo shoots and their contribution to the household income between the villages studied. A rapid vulnerability assessment (RVA) was conducted to identify vulnerable and threatened species. A total of 480 plant species (25% of recorded flora) from 117 families and 334 genera are used as NTFPs by the local people. Results revealed that there is a significant difference in the collection and contribution of bamboo shoots to household income among the villages. However, their contribution to per-capita income is very low, and they are mainly used in households. Vulnerability assessment showed that most of the medicinal species have moderate vulnerable status and that most of the food species have less vulnerable status. Some medicinal plants, such as Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis, are overexploited and getting scarce. Sustainable harvest and management strategies should be implemented to prevent overexploitation of these species.中国纳板河流域国家级自然保护区内的药用和食用非木材林产品:生计改善及生物多样性保护方面的意义. 非木材林产品在农村生活中发挥着重要作用。生活在森林之中和周围的人们的生活和收入有赖于多样的非木材林产品。本文介绍了纳板河流域国家级自然保护区非木材林产品中药用和食用植物的多样性概况。非木材林产品数据的收集采用了半结构访谈,自由列表和家庭社会经济访谈等民族植物学调查方法。采访后还采集了植物标本进行鉴定。以竹笋作为非木材林产品的代表进行了进一步的分析。我们假设竹笋的采集量及其对家庭收入的贡献在所研究的村寨之间无显著差异。采用单因素方差分析分析对零假设进行了检验。采用快速脆弱性分析方法筛选出了易危和濒危种类。共调查到当地居民利用的非木材林产品植物有117科,334属,480种(占当地记录植物种类的25%)。结果显示不同村寨之间竹笋的采集量及其对家庭收入的贡献有显著差异。但是,竹笋对人均收入的贡献很小因为采集的竹笋主要用于家庭日常生活。脆弱性分析发现大多数药用植物种类处于中等脆弱水平,大部分食用植物较低的脆弱水平。此外,结果显示有些药用植物如滇重楼已经被过度采集并且变得稀少。因此为了防止对这些种类的过度采集应该实施可持续采集及管理策略。关键词:自然资源利用,非木材林产品,快速脆弱性分析,可持续采集

Rubber intercropping: a viable concept for the 21st century?

The last decades brought along a tremendous expansion of rubber plantations as well as respective socio-economic transformations. This paper reviews the historical development of rubber cultivation with special reference to intercropping and illustrates the major development steps. The agronomic challenges of intercropping are analyzed and a management classification scheme is suggested. Though the topic of labor always accompanied rubber management, it is nowadays of even higher relevance due to alternative income options, be it due to competing crops such as oil palm, or be it off-farm income opportunities. This development challenges labor intensive permanent intercropping systems. It can thus be concluded that the permanent integration of additional plants needs either to be highly profitable or at least be labor extensive to be adopted on a considerable scale. Given the large area of rubber plantations the latter seems to be more realistic. In this context timber trees might offer promising options if tree selection is properly adapted to site and plantation conditions. Nevertheless, without external interventions, such as land-use planning and implementation, or incentives, the development will be difficult to control.

18 – MOUNTAIN FORESTS

Upland forests have an outstanding significance in water management and they hold an important fraction of Indonesian terrestrial biodiversity. The majority of mountains throughout Indonesia are volcanoes. If active, physical changes can be dramatic. Even a layer of only 1 mm ash on a leaf can reduce light penetration by 90%. Nevertheless, Mountain forests play a significant role for maintaining species diversity in Indonesia, since significant tracts of forests, particularly on Sumatra, Java, Bali, Nusatenggara, Sulawesi and the Moluccas are left only in higher altitudes. The forests on these mountain range gives the impression of being stunted in growth with large trees only to be found in sheltered situations. Whether it is the soil conditions, direct climatic effect, or the change of the communities in disperser organisms, the formation of the forest is still unknown. It has been recorded that 81% of the entire mammal population of Borneo is restricted to altitudes below 660 m. It has been recorded that 81% of the entire mammal population of Borneo is restricted to altitudes below 660 m.

The Economics of Smallholder Rubber Farming in a Mountainous Region of Southwest China: Elevation, Ethnicity, and Risk

While the expansion of smallholder rubber farming in southwest China has contributed to the local rural economy, it has also had negative environmental consequences. The economics and potential risks of smallholder rubber farming remain unclear due to the lack of quantitative evidence. Based on data collected in a comprehensive survey of 612 smallholder rubber farmers in Xishuangbanna, this paper quantifies economic aspects of rubber farming including land use, inputs and outputs, household income composition, and risks. In particular, we compare differences in these parameters associated with ethnicity and elevation. Our results suggest that rubber has taken over the rural economy in the rubber-planting region of Xishuangbanna, where almost 80% of agricultural land is devoted to rubber. On average, rubber farming provides over 40% of smallholder incomes. While smallholder rubber farming is generally highly profitable, it is also highly vulnerable to price fluctuations. Rubber expansion has also reduced diversification and thereby increased household income risk. Most importantly, our analysis shows that the economic performance of smallholder rubber farming differs for different ethnic groups and at different elevations. The results of this study provide important quantitative information on smallholder rubber farming that can inform policymaking and guide future research.

16 – TROPICAL LOWLAND EVERGREEN RAINFOREST

About 72% of the land area of the Indonesian archipelago was originally covered with tropical rainforest. However, today only 54% are still in existence officially, but the distribution is not very even. The plants of lowland evergreen forest can be classified as autotrophic plants with chlorophyll (mechanically independent plants), and heterotrophic plants without chlorophyll (saprophytes, parasites). The characterization of Lowland Evergreen Rainforest types is based mainly on the occurrence of economically important species. Since, forests are keystone ecosystems for the maintenance of island ecosystem functions. Hence, direct impacts after forest destruction are discernible from the mountain ranges, to the rivers and other aquatic systems down to the lowlands and near-shore aquatic ecosystems, especially coral reefs and seagrass beds. There is, in fact, no method or technique for exploitation of tropical rainforest which, provides for the retention of all species ad infinitum within the context of cash economy.

17 – SPECIAL FOREST ECOSYSTEMS

This chapter focuses on swamp forests, ironwood forest, and heath forest along with their ecology, producers, consumers, and ecological status. Extension swamp forest areas can be found in both, clear freshwater environments and highly acidic peat swamp areas. These areas are poor from a nutritional point of view and interesting defense mechanisms of the plants have developed there based mainly on phenolic compounds. Plant communities over limestone can be found throughout Indonesia as a mosaic of rich and poor growth dependent on the drainage pattern. Sometimes unique flora and fauna lives in these environments adapted to the relatively often occurring water stress situation. Organisms living in area of ultrabasic rocks need to be adapted to the existing mineral-rich environment. Because these areas are often places of mining activities the study of this ecosystem could give valuable information concerning the regaining of industrial sites. Heath forest develops over poorly buffered soils. Ironwood forests are varying in composition, site to site and from island to island