Germine H. Awad

The Impact of Acculturation and Religious Identification on Perceived Discrimination for Arab/Middle Eastern Americans

The aim of the current study was to determine the impact of acculturation, ethnic identity, and religious affiliation on perceived discrimination for persons of Arab and Middle Eastern descent. Two aspects of acculturation (ethnic society immersion and dominant society immersion), religious affiliation, and ethnic identity were measured using a final sample of 177 individuals of Arab or Middle Eastern descent. Results indicated that Arab/Middle Eastern Americans who reported lower levels of dominant society immersion tended to report higher levels of discrimination. Furthermore, Muslims reported a higher level of discrimination than Christians but this finding was moderated by level of acculturation. Specifically, Muslims who reported a high level of dominant society immersion experienced the most discrimination, whereas Christians who reported a high level of dominant society immersion reported less discrimination. Study implications are discussed.

Color-blind racial ideology: theory, training, and measurement implications in psychology.

Synthesizing the interdisciplinary literature, we characterize color-blind racial ideology (CBRI) as consisting of two interrelated domains: color-evasion (i.e., denial of racial differences by emphasizing sameness) and power-evasion (i.e., denial of racism by emphasizing equal opportunities). Mounting empirical data suggest that the color-evasion dimension is ineffective and in fact promotes interracial tension and potential inequality. CBRI may be conceived as an ultramodern or contemporary form of racism and a legitimizing ideology used to justify the racial status quo. Four types of CBRI are described: denial of (a) race, (b) blatant racial issues, (c) institutional racism, and (d) White privilege. We discuss empirical findings suggesting a relationship between CBRI and increased racial prejudice, racial anger, and racial fear. Implications for education, training, and research are provided.

Beauty and Body Image Concerns Among African American College Women

The current study examined body image concerns among African American women. In recent years, there has been an attempt to include ethnic minority samples in body image studies, but few specifically examine unique issues pertaining to beauty and body image for African American college-age women. A total of 31 African American women participated in one of five focus groups on the campus of a large Southwestern University to examine beauty and body image. Data were analyzed using a thematic approach and several themes were identified. The majority of themes pertained to issues related to hair, skin tone, body type, and message sources. Themes included sacrifice, ignorance/racial microaggressions, validation and invalidation by others, thick/toned/curvy as optimal, hypersexualization, and being thin is for White women. Findings of the current study suggest a reconceptualization of body image for African American women where relevant characteristics such as hair and skin tone are given more priority over traditional body image concerns often associated with European American women.

Ethnic group differences in racial identity attitudes, perceived discrimination and mental health outcomes in African American, Black Caribbean and Latino Caribbean college students

The increasing presence of Black Caribbean and Latino Caribbean college students in higher education settings requires helping professionals to more clearly understand their unique racial identity developmental needs and experiences with discrimination in order to fortify their academic endeavors and contribute to their success. A series of 3 × 2 ANOVAs and MANOVAS were conducted to examine ethnic group differences in racial identity attitudes, perceived racial discrimination and mental health outcomes in 159 African American, Black Caribbean and Latino Caribbean college students in an urban college setting in the Northeast USA. Results indicated that dissonance and immersion racial identity status attitudes were significantly linked to perceived racial discrimination and depression for all participants. Findings also showed a main interaction effect between ethnicity and racial identity conformity attitudes and mental health outcomes with high conformity linked to increased perceived stress for Latino Caribbeans and Black Caribbeans compared to African Americans. Implications for mental health practitioners and ongoing research are discussed.

Do measures commonly used in body image research perform adequately with African American college women

This study examines reliability and validity estimates for 3 widely used measures in body image research in a sample of African American college women (N = 278). Internal consistency estimates were adequate (α coefficients above .70) for all measures, and evidence of convergent and discriminant validity was found. Confirmatory factor analyses failed to replicate the hypothesized factor structures of these measures. Exploratory factor analyses indicated that 4 factors found for the Sociocultural Attitudes Toward Appearance Questionnaire were similar to the hypothesized subscales, with fewer items. The factors found for the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire-Appearance Scales and the Body Dissatisfaction subscale of the Eating Disorders Inventory-3 were not similar to the subscales developed by the scale authors. Validity and reliability evidence is discussed for the new factors.

Weighing and Body Monitoring Among College Women: The Scale Number as an Emotional Barometer

This study investigated weighing and body-monitoring behaviors, as well as psychological and behavioral reactions to weighing, among female college students. Weighing and body monitoring were engaged in by the majority of participants. Participants changed food intake and exercise based on weight. About 63% reported that the scale number impacts their mood, and 50% and 48% indicated that it impacts their sexual comfort and self-esteem, respectively. Most did not perceive self-weighing to be harmful. College counselors should be aware that weighing and body monitoring are normative, with negative psychological outcomes associated with weighing for a substantive percentage of college women.

Recommendations for Culturally Sensitive Research Methods

ABSTRACT As the US continues to diversify, methods for accurately assessing human behavior must evolve. This paper offers multicultural research considerations at several stages of the research process for psychological research and consultation. Implications regarding the comparative research framework are discussed and suggestions are offered on how to avoid inadvertently communicating the notion that a White control group is needed to make psychological research meaningful. Strategies for data collection such as including pertinent stakeholders are offered with special consideration for researchers who collect data in school settings. Recruitment and retention issues are discussed as it relates to trust building. Psychological and educational assessments are considered and suggestions for reducing bias by assessing cultural variables are presented. Study interpretation is examined with particular attention to threats to validity that may arise when conducting multicultural research.

Academic Potential Beliefs and Feelings: Conceptual Development and Relations with Academic Outcomes

Students’ beliefs about their own academic potential and corresponding feelings of satisfaction in reaction to those beliefs may be influential motivators of academic attitudes and behaviors. To explore this possibility, the authors developed and tested a 10-item Academic Potential Beliefs and Feelings Questionnaire (APBFQ) in three independent samples across two studies. The measure was found to have two coherent factors: (i) beliefs about academic potential; and (ii) satisfaction in academic potential. Both subscales had good reliability, temporal stability, and were differentiated from other self-perceptions. Results suggested that perceived academic potential had desirable relations with academic outcomes. In contrast, while satisfaction correlated positively with intrinsic value for coursework, it was also linked with a variety of maladaptive academic beliefs, behaviors, and underachievement, particularly for male students low in perceived academic potential.

Evaluation of the CES-D Scale factor structure in a sample of second-generation Arab-Americans

Very few studies have examined the psychometric properties of mental health measures for use with the immigrant Arab American population, and fewer still have evaluated measures for use with the second generation. The present study evaluated the reliability and factor structure of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D). A total of 119 second-generation Americans of Arab descent completed the instrument on a Website. Cronbachs alpha was high, at .90. Principle components factor analysis yielded a three-factor solution in which emotional and physiological symptoms overlapped in one factor. These results are consistent with many other studies of ethnic minority immigrants, which report that affective and somatic symptoms were not experienced as separate. They are also consistent with research on the somatization of depression among Arabs living in the Middle East. However, the results challenge assumptions that as a result of the acculturation process, children of immigrants will experience depression more similar to the mainstream population rather than immigrants. Additionally, more than 40% of participants reported scores above the cut-off for clinically significant depression. Further research is needed to determine a more accurate cut-off score and identify the causes for the high self-reported depression.

Considerations for Psychotherapy with Immigrant Women of Arab/Middle Eastern Descent

Among the many consequences immediately following 9/11, Arab/Middle Eastern Americans—who were less visible prior to the attacks—became a hyper visible ethnic minority group. As a result, Arab/Middle Easterners reported a sharp increase in discrimination and subsequently experienced maladaptive mental health outcomes. Although some scholars have discussed therapy with Arab/Middle Easterners, very little has been written about Arab/Middle Eastern women in particular. This article discusses cultural influences, acculturation experiences and gender roles that may impact psychotherapy with women of Arab/Middle Eastern descent. Considerations for non-Middle Eastern therapists working with this population will be discussed, especially the potential cultural mismatch with feminist theories and common misconceptions about Arab/Middle Eastern women. A case presentation is provided to illustrate the concepts.