Gert Spaargaren

Conclusion and Discussion

At the dawn of the twenty-first century, the Chinese government started to introduce a series of policies explicitly aimed at farmers’ rural–urban migration. This research has sought to examine how migrant workers cope with problems under policy intervention. These different strategies are categorized into a typology of “coping” which includes administrative coping, political coping, and social coping, as well as the main corresponding coping resources: government policy, power of civil groups, and social networks, respectively. Empirical data show making a claim under migration policies is not commonly found among migrant workers, in other words, administrative coping is not widely adopted by migrant workers. Instead, social coping is the most adopted one by migrant workers; meanwhile, political coping is an emerging coping strategy in Chinese society. Therefore, there is still a long way to go and much to do in order to ensure migrant workers benefit from migration polices in China.

Ecological Modernisation Theory in Debate : A Review

Ecological Modernisation Theory has been faced with various challenges from different theoretical perspectives throughout the years. This contribution reviews the various debates ecological modernisation ideas have been engaged in. The article starts with a historical perspective on some of the earlier debates that paralleled Ecological Modernisation from its birth in the early 1980s to its maturation. These initial debates with earlier neo‐Marxists and deindustrialisation/counterproductivity theorists were formative for Ecological Modernisation Theory, but are no longer all of similar relevance today. Subsequently we concentrate on more contemporary discussions, which only to some extent reflect similar topics. We will respectively enter into discussions with constructivists and postmodernists on the material foundation of social theory, review and refine the controversies with eco‐centrists on radical versus reformist environmental reforms and contribute to neo‐Marxist understanding of social inequalities in environmental problems and reform.

Sociology, environment, and modernity: Ecological modernization as a theory of social change

Abstract To minimize or at least substantially reduce damage to the natural resource sustenance‐base we urgently need institutional reform within modern society. Environmental sociologists have different views as to which institutional traits can be held primarily responsible for the environmental crisis. Examples include its capitalistic or industrial character as well as the complex, highly administrated technological system of modern society. We discuss these matters in the context of the theory of “ecological modernization”; as developed by the German sociologist Joseph Huber, among others. To analyze the institutional reforms required for bringing human interaction with the sustenance‐base under rational ecological control, however, the theory needs to be substantially modified and complemented in several respects. However, restructuring the processes of production and consumption is only half the story. The change to ecologically sound patterns of production and consumption is limited by the dimensi...

Lifestyles, consumption and the environment: The ecological modernization of domestic consumption

Ecological modernisation theory has been developed so far mainly with respect to the production sphere. In order to apply the theory to the sphere of consumption, it needs to be enriched with some of the central concepts from the sociology of consumption. What results is a contextual model of (domestic) consumption which combines an actor‐oriented approach with a system‐of‐provision perspective of consumer behaviour. In conclusion, the relevance of the proposed model for research on the ecological modernisation of domestic consumption is discussed.

From Additions and Withdrawals to Environmental Flows: Reframing Debates in the Environmental Social Sciences.

Sociology is known for its academic debates. These debates are vehicles to accumulate understanding and interpretation of a constantly changing modern order. In the environmental social sciences, one of the axes of debate recently centered between Treadmill of Production ideas and Ecological Modernization perspectives. This article reviews the nature of that debate and aims to move beyond it. In using the sociology of networks and flows, the future research agenda for the environmental social sciences is reframed and reformulated.

Ecological modernization theory and domestic consumption

In the first part of the paper, the theory of ecological modernization is discussed with respect to some of its central assumptions, taking into account a number of the criticisms that have been raised against the theory. It is argued that the focus of the theory on substance and energy flows within social systems does not necessarily imply a resort to some sort of ‘naive realism’ which denies the inherently social and contested nature of environmental problems. It is, however, important for environmental sociologists to take on board indicators and criteria that refer to the material dimension of social systems in order to be able to contribute to the debate on sustainable production and consumption. Furthermore, it is argued that environmental technologies are of crucial importance for bringing about more sustainable ways of industrial production and consumption. It is described how the real or supposed dangers of a central focus on technology would result in a technological-fix scheme of environmental ...

The politics of sustainable consumption: the case of the Netherlands

Abstract The environmental pressure associated with contemporary modes of material provisioning in advanced countries suggests the need to foster more sustainable consumption. Despite growing interest in sustainability, the Netherlands currently has few effective and legitimate measures in place that focus on the role of citizen-consumers. Existing policy styles and instruments have not reduced significantly the environmental impacts of consumption. An explanation for this inadequacy resides in the technocratic origins of environmental policymaking and the pronounced tendency to rely on the presumed rationality of producers situated on the supply side of production-consumption chains. A central issue, therefore, becomes the organization of an overt politics of sustainable consumption. We explore here possible alternatives to facilitate sustainable consumption in the Netherlands and review the policy initiatives that non-governmental organizations and the Dutch government have to date undertaken. The analysis evaluates these efforts through a theoretical framework designed to chart the development of a democratic vision of sustainable consumption.

Ecological Modernization and Consumption: A Reply

This contribution balances Carolans claim that ecological modernization perspectives fall short in adequately dealing with consumption, by referring to four major points. First, Carolan misinterprets ecological modernization where he claims that this perspective only argues for more production (and consumption). Second, Carolan is wrong in stating that ecological modernization has basically neglected issues of consumption as it has been part and parcel of the theory for some time. Third, he is incoherent with respect to the issue of downsizing consumption in a demodernization way. Finally, the approach taken by Carolan to debate the environmental dimensions of consumption brings us back to Malthusian debates of the 1970s, instead of moving forward to a more sociological theory and perspective of sustainable consumption.

Carbon flows, carbon markets, and low-carbon lifestyles:reflecting on the role of markets in climategovernance

The role of carbon markets in governing global carbon flows triggers substantial debates among policymakers, social movements and social scientists. The present debate on carbon markets is different from the earlier debate on market-based instruments in environmental politics. Carbon markets represent both more radical and more risky forms of governing global carbon flows, as illustrated by an analysis of both regulatory and voluntary carbon markets operating on the global and personal level. To make use of their environmental potential and to prevent them from generating perverse consequences, carbon markets are to be regulated by state, market and civil society authorities. Embedding carbon markets in civil society means connecting carbon flows to the households and the lifestyles of citizen-consumers in a direct and meaningful manner, which can increase legitimacy and foreground climate change politics among citizen-consumers.

Organising consumer involvement in the greening of global food flows: the role of environmental NGOs in the case of marine fish

Consumers are increasingly concerned about the impacts of global food provision, but especially in the case of marine fish, their unease is complex, locally specific and still evolving. Responding to these apprehensions solely by promoting short local supply chains is restricted to niche markets and leaves other opportunities for increasing sustainability untouched. Additional, complementary strategies for the greening of food supply chains are examined. To analyse the interaction between local and global dynamics, the sociology of networks and flows is applied to the case of marine fish production and consumption in order to identify innovative governance arrangements that make global supply chains more sustainable. Certifying fisheries and the use of fish wallet cards by consumers are examples of new governance arrangements that connect sustainability concerns of consumers with production decisions made by distant actors. To improve the effectiveness of these arrangements, new roles are proposed for environmental NGOs as representatives of local actors and as managers of trust in certifying institutions.