Gertrud Pfister

IT'S STILL A MAN'S GAME? The Experiences of Top-Level European Women Footballers

This article investigates national similarities and differences with respect to how women enter the world of football and whether gender relations continue to impact on both their access to and opportunities in the sport. The data comes from 40 semi-structured interviews with top-level women footballers in England, Germany, Norway and Spain. Early male influences are discussed in relation to: existing work on socialization into sport, notions of femininity, and the different cultural contexts. The organization of youth sport is identified as a crucial factor in influencing girls and young womens opportunities to play football. Furthermore, although men continue to have a considerable influence on the womens game, even when women have no conscious intentions of resistance, they incorporate their own meanings into the sport.

I Would Like to be Like Her/Him: Are Athletes Role-Models for Boys and Girls?

The first part of this contribution deals with theoretical considerations of the meaning of role-models and idols in general and for young people in particular. Then the results of existing studies are discussed. As research shows, the huge majority of idols, especially of sport heroes, are men, and it is boys who admire sport stars. In the second part of the article a pilot study is presented in which we asked female and male pupils about their role-models. A high percentage of boys named sporting heroes or ‘action stars’ whom they admired because of their strength, aggression and their ability to get things done. In contrast, for the girls interviewed, sport stars did not have the function of role-models. They admired the stars and starlets of the movie and music scene. At the end, the potential effects of these orientations are discussed, and the question is asked what kind of answers pedagogy can offer.

Women in sport – gender relations and future perspectives1

Starting off from deliberations on the ‘nature’ and significance of gender differences and gender relations, I first of all present in this contribution my theoretical framework: a constructivist approach to gender. If gender is understood as a social construction, gender differences are not ‘natural’ but acquired and enacted, and also vary according to the particular social and gender order. Currently observable in many respects is a tendency towards ‘gender bending’ and gender play. This raises the question as to whether this dismantling and/or de-dramatization of gender differences in, as well as outside, sport is a sign pointing towards a new gender order. Or has gender enactment become more subtle? Have gender scripts shifted to other areas, for example to media sports with their focus on (hetero)sexuality? Which course will gender relations take in future, in as well as outside sport? In discussing the issues raised above, I will analyse the present situation and consider future developments with regard to sports participation, media sports and leadership in sport.

Female and Male Coaches in The Eyes of Female Elite Soccer Players

What are female athletes’ expectations and evaluations of coaches? Is gender still important? These are the main questions discussed in this article. It is based on existing literature and on qualitative semi-structured interviews with 38 elite female soccer players from Germany, Norway, Sweden and the USA. The results showed that the following gender-related trends emerged cross-nationally. Male coaches are more often characterized by a ‘masculine’ style of interaction, and there is a feeling of not having been taken seriously by male coaches. The players seemed to have been more satisfied with female than male coaches, because of their female style of communication. They believed that ‘female coaches were better psychologists’, and some thought that women should not be coached in the same way as men. These results can be interpreted as mirroring the ‘old fashioned gender stereotypes’, but they also question whether there exists a ‘female coaching philosophy’.

Gender Differences in the Daily Physical Activities of Danish School Children.

The purpose of this study was to explore the daily physical activities of Danish children with a focus on describing and explaining gender differences. Accelerometer measurements of physical activity in different contexts, as well as questionnaire data, were collected from more than 500 children at pre-school and later at third grade. The study showed that boys were generally more physically active than girls (18% at age 6—7, and 16% at age 9—10, both p < 0.001) and found differences in the types of activities undertaken by the two genders. These findings are in accordance with numerous other studies in Denmark as well as internationally. However, this study adds to this knowledge by showing that the gender difference in total amounts of activity was mainly due to large gender differences in the amounts of self-organized physical activity such as after-school day care (difference at age 6—7 = 45%, difference at age 9—10 = 58%, both p < 0.001) and school breaks (difference at age 6—7 = 32%, difference at age 9—10 = 36%, both p < 0.001). This could be partly explained by boys being more interested in playing football in contexts for children’s self-organized activities. Différences liées au genre dans les activités physiques quotidiennes d’enfants d’école Danoise Le but de cette étude était d’explorer les activités physiques quotidiennes d’enfants danois en se focalisant sur la description et l’analyse des différences liées au genre. Des données d’activité physique mesurées par accéléromètre et par questionnaire ont été collectées dans différents contextes auprès de plus de 500 enfants d’écoles maternelle et primaire. L’étude a montré que les garçons étaient généralement plus actifs physiquement que les filles (18%, à l’âge de 6-7 ans, et 16% à l’âge de 9-10ans, p < 0.001), et a mis en évidence des différences concernant le type d’activités pratiquées par les deux genres. Ces résultats sont conformes aux nombreuses études réalisées au Danemark et au niveau international. Néanmoins, cette étude apporte de nouvelles connaissances en montrant que la quantité totale d’activité physique expliquée par la différence de genre était due principalement à des différences de genre relatives à la quantité d’activité physique auto-organisée telle que les activités pratiquées après l’école (différence à l’âge de 6-7 ans = 45%, différence à l’âge de 9-10 ans = 58%, p < 0.001), et lors des récréations (différence à l’âge de 6-7 ans = 32%, différence à l’âge de 9-10 ans = 36%, p < 0.001). Ceci peut partiellement être expliqué par le fait que, dans le cadre d’activités autoorganisées, les garçons sont plus intéressés que les filles par la pratique du football. Diferencias de género en las actividades diarias físicas en niños de la escuela danesa El propósito de este estudio fue explorar las actividades físicas diarias de los niños daneses con el objetivo en describir y explicar las diferencias de género. Mediciones de acelerometría de la actividad física en diferentes contextos, así como los datos del cuestionario, fueron recogidos en más de 500 niños en edad preescolar y más tarde en el tercer grado. El estudio mostró que los niños fueron en general más activos físicamente que las niñas (18%, a la edad de 6-7, y el 16% a la edad de 9-10, ambos p < 0,001) y se encontraron diferencias en los tipos de actividades llevadas a cabo por los dos sexos. Estos resultados están de acuerdo con numerosos estudios en Dinamarca, así como a nivel internacional. Sin embargo, este estudio se suma a este conocimiento al mostrar que la diferencia de género en las cantidades totales de actividad se debió principalmente a las diferencias de género en las grandes cantidades de actividad física auto-organizada, tanto después del colegio (diferencia a la edad de 6-7 = 45%, diferencia a la edad de 9-10 = 58%, ambos p < 0,001) y en las vacaciones escolares (diferencia a la edad de 6-7 = 32%, diferencia a la edad de 9-10 = 36%, ambos p < 0,001). Esto podría explicarse en parte por estar los niños más interesados en jugar al fútbol en contextos de actividades auto-organizadas para niños. Geschlechtsunterschiede bei der täglichen Bewegungszeit von dänischen Schulkindern Diese Studie diente der Erforschung der täglichen Bewegungszeit von dänischen Schulkindern mit dem Fokus auf der Beschreibung und Erklärung der Unterschiede zwischen den Geschlechtern. Beschleunigungsmessungen der körperlichen Aktivität in verschiedenen Zusammenhängen sowie die Daten aus Befragungen wurden von mehr als 500 Kindern im Vorschulalter sowie von Kindern des 3. Schuljahrs erhoben. Die Studie zeigte, dass Jungen im Allgemeinen aktiver waren als Mädchen (18 % bei den 6- bis 7-Jährigen und 16 % bei den 9- bis 10-Jährigen, für beide Werte p < 0,001) und dass die beiden Geschlechter unterschiedliche Aktivitäten ausführen. Diese Ergebnisse stimmen mit zahlreichen dänischen und internationalen Studien überein. Jedoch konnte aus dieser Studie die zusätzliche Erkenntnis gewonnen werden, dass der hauptsächliche Unterschied zwischen den Geschlechtern aus der groβen Differenz bei selbstorganisierten Bewegungsaktivitäten zum Beispiel in der auβerschulischen Betreuung (Unterschied bei den 6- bis7-Jährigen=45%, bei den 9- bis 10-Jährigen=58%, jeweils p < 0,001) und während der Pausen (Unterschied bei den 6- bis7-Jährigen=32%, bei den 9- bis 10-Jährigen=36%, jeweils p < 0,001) resultierte. Dies kann teilweise damit erklärt werden, dass Jungen sich mehr für Fuβball interessieren im Zusammenhang mit selbstorganiserten Aktivitäten.

Cultural confrontations: German Turnen, swedish gymnastics and english sport – European diversity in physical activities from a historical perspective

Focusing on the second half of the nineteenth century, this paper examines the development of and changes in movement cultures and how these were influenced by the general conditions prevailing in a particular society at a particular time. Due to the mutual influences of society and physical culture, differing concepts of ‘physical exercise’ developed in the different countries of Europe. German Turnen, for example, arose from the political situation in Germany at the beginning of the nineteenth century, while at the same time in Sweden Lings gymnastics became predominant. England, by contrast, is regarded as the birthplace of modern sport, which on account of its basic principles – equal chances, competition, performance and record – differed fundamentally from German Turnen and from gymnastics. In Germany, in the second half of the nineteenth century, there was enormous rivalry between German Turnen, Swedish gymnastics and modern sport. This article analyzes the arguments and strategies used by the adherents of each of these forms of physical exercise and examines the background, the effects as well as the ‘sportification’ of physical culture. In addition the paper raises questions which go beyond the borders of Germany. Was there rivalry between different forms of physical culture in other countries, too? How did these different forms mark themselves off from one another, and how did they influence each other? When, how and why, for example, was German Turnen exported to Eastern Europe, Swedish gymnastics to England and modern sport to Spain? This article is intended to represent one of the many stones hitherto missing in the great mosaic of European sport history.

Sport, women, and leadership: results of a project on executives in German sports organizations.

Abstract Throughout the world, women are a small minority within the governing bodies of organized sport. This paper presents the results of three empirical studies that have been undertaken within a German research project. The representative survey of all male and female executives in German sports federations (N=697) included questions concerning their socio-demography, their careers as executive members of sports organizations, as well as their careers in sport and their chosen occupation. The survey reveals significant gender differences in terms of, for example, age, family situation, responsibilities in the executive committees, duration of office, and career barriers. Furthermore, we conducted 23 in-depth, semi-structured interviews with women in leadership positions to explore the womens individual perspectives. The aim of a second interview study (“drop-out” study) was to identify barriers in the voluntary careers of seven male and nine female leaders who left office prematurely (i.e. earlier than they had originally planned). These informants can be seen as experts who have an excellent insight into their organizations and who have also experienced barriers that caused them to “drop out”. The respondents’ statements showed similarities with regard to socio-economic background but considerable differences in terms of gender-specific experiences, attitudes, and evaluations. The demands placed on the sports leaders were much more in line with the biographies of the men interviewed than with the personal circumstances of the women.

Gender constructions and negotiations in physical education: case studies

In Denmark as in other European countries, many girls, and especially Muslim girls, seem to lose interest in physical activities and sport with increasing age. However, in a Danish context, little is known about the reasons why girls drop out of sport and which role physical education (PE) plays in this process. In this article we present results of a qualitative study on gendered discourses and doing gender in a PE class at a Danish high school. Drawing on constructivist and post-structuralist approaches to gender and ethnicity, we explore the different opportunities of girls in PE based on in-depth interviews and video observations. Three case studies of three girls are the focus of this article: Nanna, the Danish ‘athletic girl’ who found a balance between (en)acting femininity and presenting herself as a competent athlete; Iram, the ‘Muslim girl’ whose position as a Muslim causes her to hide her sporting abilities and Ida, the Danish ‘normal girl’ who re-interprets PE and adapts it to her needs. These three girls act in and react to a discourse that emphasises competitive sport and is orientated towards male sport tastes and sport practices. The results of this study indicate that PE, with its focus on games and performances, meets the requirements and expectations of many boys but contributes to the decrease in sporting interests and activities among numerous girls.

Female fans of men’s football – a case study in Denmark

Football is an invention by men for men, and today, the majority of players and fans are men. There is an abundance of literature on football and fandom; however, gender is mostly not an issue in these publications. Research about female football supporters and fans is very limited. This is also true for Denmark, the country, which is the focus of this article. Based on gender and socialization theories, this contribution addresses women and their (lack of) interest in men’s football. The main questions refer to the numbers of female supporters and their patterns of football consumption. The sources of information are reader and user data of mass media, results of surveys about the habits of the Danish population and the results of an interview study with female fans. A specific focus of this article is on the minority of female supporters who attend football games. How do they adapt to a ‘man’s world’ and what are their roles in this ‘male environment’? The statements of interviewees revealed that female fans have to cope with a measure of sexism, but that they can adopt the men’s perspectives in order to be accepted as ‘authentic fans’. Other women reacted on men’s domination in the football stadium by founding a women only fan group that allows them to find their own way to be women and fans.

It is never too late to win – sporting activities and performances of ageing women

Sport is an area in which masculinity, youth and their achievements are celebrated and rewarded. Thus, ageing women face a double barrier when they wish to participate and perform in an endeavour which is currently of major interest in the industrialized world. However, the understanding of women and ageing is undergoing change, because of changing gender arrangements, the spread of enhancement technologies and a new approach of older women to their lives. Furthermore, statistics and studies indicate that the participation of older women in competitive sports has become a socio-cultural phenomenon which raises the question of how older women experience and negotiate ageing as well as participation in performance sports. This article presents theoretical approaches to the intersecting concepts of gender and age in the context of physicality and sport, provides information about the growing participation of older women in sporting activities and competitions, and offers potential explanations for the increasing sports interest and performance orientation among older middle-class women in Western countries.