Gesche Krause

Livelihoods of Ornamental Coral Fishermen in South Sulawesi/Indonesia: Implications for Management

Collection of live coral for the marine aquarium trade has increased significantly in recent years, causing concerns over the ecological implications of this activity for the source regions. The Spermonde Archipelago off Southwest Sulawesi is one of the four major ornamental coral collection sites in Indonesia, the country supplying most corals in the trade. Management of the fishery remains ineffective, and overharvesting is widespread. Conservation strategies for marine resources increasingly emphasize the socioeconomic dimensions of resource use, yet little information is available on the livelihoods of fishermen involved in the ornamental fishery. Here, a first analysis of the livelihoods of coral fishermen in the Spermonde Archipelago is presented, along with a discussion of possibilities for future management interventions. The reef fishery of the study area is characterized by a high diversity of target organisms, with none of the fishermen relying exclusively on ornamental corals for income. Moreover, fishermen are organized in a tightly knit web of patron–client relationships, leaving little scope for them to initiate changes in livelihood strategies. The patron–client system emerged as a key institution of the fishery. In order to support sustainable marine resource use, management policies should simultaneously target the fishermen and their patrons as well as the regional coral trade network, broadening the livelihood portfolio of island communities and improving the regulation of the associated trade network.

Seaweed and Man

Seaweeds have been utilized by man as food and medication for about 14,000 years. The ever rising demand for edible seaweeds and for biochemical components of seaweeds, mainly hydrocolloids like agar, alginate, and carrageenan, has fuelled a large aquaculture industry particularly in Asia. Future expansion of seaweed culture will include suitable farming sites in offshore areas associated with wind farms. Seaweeds as extractive and therefore bioremedial species are moreover an important component in Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA), where commercially valuable organisms of different trophic levels are combined in a culturing system resembling a small ecosystem. The employment created by seaweeds and other aquaculture secures an income to millions of people and is therefore of high socioeconomic importance.

An integrated approach to mangrove dynamics and management

The main objective of the MADAM project (Mangrove Dynamics and Management) is to generate the scientific basis enabling the sustainable stewardship of the resources of the Caeté mangrove estuary in Northeast Brazil in the sense of integrated coastal (zone) management. To achieve this, it is necessary to acquire in-depth knowledge of natural processes as well as of the relevant institutional, cultural, economic, social and political dynamics. Causal linkages within the ecosystem, as well as between ecosystem, economy and society, are analysed and explained via dynamic and trophic modelling. Scenario construction is intended to forecast the effects of acute or chronic interference on utilized resources, and to answer wider, management-related questions (e.g. restoration of destroyed areas, utilization potential for aquaculture). This paper describes the project strategy as developed and modified in the context of research results from the initial 2-yr project phase. It is argued that a continuous discussion process is essential to assess the validity of the strategies formulated at the beginning of a medium-time project, particularly if the project is of interdisciplinary nature.

The Socio-economic Dimensions of Offshore Aquaculture in a Multi-use Setting

Decision-making within the marine realm is a complex process, which endorses ecological, societal and economic needs and they must therefore be managed jointly. Much of the formerly “free oceans” is nowadays subject to intensive uses, thus making the need to optimise the management of the resources within a multifunctional and multi-use(r) context apparent. The high competition for functions and uses of inshore and nearshore waters has given strong incentives to investigate the opportunities of moving industrial activities offshore. The current raise of offshore aquaculture is one prominent example of this. However, our understanding of the social dimensions and effects of offshore aquaculture is yet incomplete. We need to consider also how different multi-use settings for offshore aquaculture affect the socio-economic outcomes on various levels. During the development of offshore aquaculture, this multifunctional perspective has emerged especially for the combination with offshore wind farms. This synergy of two different stakeholders, the so-called multifunctional utilisation of marine areas, can be viewed as a new concept by the implementation of integrated, consensus-based resource planning conditions. We suggest a typology of social dimensions of marine aquaculture, based on the literature of “traditional” nearshore aquaculture. Based on this typology we discuss the current level of knowledge on the socio-economic dimensions of multi-use offshore aquaculture and point to further research needs.

The German Case Study: Pioneer Projects of Aquaculture-Wind Farm Multi-Uses

Most studies on multi-use concepts of aquaculture and wind farms explored cultivation feasibility of extractive species, such as seaweed or bivalves. However, recent studies also included the cultivation of crustaceans or fish culture in the vicinity of wind turbines. Consequently, new approaches combine fed and extractive species in integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA) concepts for offshore multi-use to reduce nutrient output and the overall environmental impact of aquaculture operations. In this chapter the findings of a series of mussel and oyster cultivation experiments over several seasons are presented, which were conducted at different offshore test sites in the German Bight. Sites were selected within future offshore wind farm areas for an explicit multi-use perspective. Results have demonstrated successful growth and fitness parameters of these candidates and therefore definitely proved the suitability of these bivalve extractive species for open ocean aquaculture. Another approach for multi-use in offshore wind farms is its use as marine protected area or even for reinforcement or restoration of endangered species, which need the absence of any fisheries activity for recovery. Current projects are testing this perspective for the native European oyster Ostrea edulis and the European lobster Homarus gammarus. From the technological point of view there are many options on how to connect aquaculture devices, such as longline and ring structures as well as different cage types, to the foundations as well as to install it in the centre of the free area between wind turbines. Next to the system design also experiments on drag forces originating from the aquaculture structure on the foundation and vice versa were investigated. Complementary to the biological, environmental end technical aspects, a number of studies were specifically targeted to address and include stakeholders, their attitudes, their interests and concerns over time. By this approach, the inclusion of stakeholders into the research process from its very beginning until today, co-production of knowledge could be fostered. Next to joint identification of the major impediments and concerns of offshore aquaculture under multi-use conditions, new issues and research questions were identified. Primary focus on the economic potential of aquaculture in offshore wind farms was shown for consumption mussels. The production of mussels using longline technology is sufficiently profitable even under the assumption of substantial cost increases. This is especially true, if existing capacities could be used. Last but not least, the EEZ is a special area—it is not a state territory even if a coastal state has its sovereign rights and jurisdiction. It is an area where three legal systems come together: international law, law of the European Union and national law. There are no mariculture projects in the German EEZ and no approval procedure has been completed so far. Some sites are not suitable for mariculture, especially because of nature conservation and shipping.

The Mangrove Information System MAIS: Managing and Integrating Interdisciplinary Research Data

The Mangrove Information System (MAIS) has been developed to enable data syntheses and to ensure long-term data availability, quality and exchange within the research project MADAM (Mangrove Dynamics and Management). MAIS manages heterogeneous datasets on biology, chemistry, geography and socioeconomics collected in north Brazil since 1996. The GIS database has been designed with particular attention to the development of a flexible data model and user friendly graphical interface. Here, we present a description of the design and functions of MAIS and demonstrate its potential for supporting and improving interdisciplinary research. We also discuss the challenges of running such a central information system and provide recommendations for a successful management of heterogeneous data within a long-term research project.

Accompanying ESKP Projects—Development of a Process Assessment Strategy Within ESKP@AWI

Simply put, science is the pursuit of knowledge about ourselves and the world around us. This pursuit of knowledge and the application of knowledge shapes the way we view the world. However, the uses of science and technology are not shaped by science and scientists alone. They depend on an interplay of cultural, social, economic and political factors. We therefore need to advance our understanding of how such knowledge transfer processes work, and our understanding of the possible impacts of knowledge transfer activities on science and society.

State of the Art and Challenges for Offshore Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA)

By moving away from coastal waters and hence reducing pressure on nearshore ecosystems, offshore aquaculture can be seen as a possible step towards the large-scale expansion of the marine food production. Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA) in nearshore water bodies has received increasing attention and could therefore play a role in the transfer of aquaculture operations to offshore areas. IMTA holds scope for multi-use of offshore areas and can bring environmental benefits from making use of waste products and transforming these into valuable co-products. Furthermore, they may act as alternative marine production systems and provide scope for alternative income options for coastal communities, e.g. by acting as nodes for farm operation and maintenance requirements. This paper summarizes the current state of knowledge on the implications of the exposed nature of the offshore and open ocean sites on the biological, technological and socio-economic performance of IMTA. Of particular interest is improving knowledge about resource flows between integrated species in hydrodynamic challenging conditions that characterise offshore waters.

Governance and Offshore Aquaculture in Multi-resource Use Settings

The notion of the sea as a seemingly endless source of resources has long dominated marine governance. This is despite that different perceptions and valuation systems underlie the institutional structures that govern and manage marine systems. Socio-political considerations cover the whole range of stakeholders and their type of involvement in the establishment and operation of multi-use offshore systems. However, within the vast variety of regulations inside the EU, the EU Member States as well as in North America, their implementation for offshore multi-use settings is as yet incipient and examples of best practice in multi-use scenarios are needed. These need to combine different knowledge systems (e.g. authorities, decision-makers, local communities, science, etc.) to generate effective insights into the management of multiple uses of ocean space and to complement risk‐justified decision-making. Pre-existing social networks can provide significant political leverage for governance transformations as required for the move offshore. That said, a range of organizational and social challenges related to the collective use of a defined ocean territory have to be taken into account. For instance, the creation and compliance with defined responsibilities and duties or the introduction of cross-sectoral management lines, such as an offshore co-management, that integrates the different demands and practices of the involved parties within an operational scheme that is practical on a day to day manner are in case in point. Indeed, how people perceive and value marine environments and the resources they provide determines individual and collective preferences, actions and strategies in the marine realm. Thus, for the effective implementation of sustainable marine resource management, the public has to be included in the knowledge production in order to understand processes that take place in our economies, environment and societies which in turn will affect the outcomes of management actions. In the following chapter, Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) approaches, linkages between site-selection criteria’s, GIS and modelling towards the multi-use of offshore areas to marine governance are discussed in more detail.