Gilberto Eiji Shiguemoto

Effects of resistance training on resistin, leptin, cytokines, and muscle force in elderly post-menopausal women

Abstract It may be that resistance exercise can be used to prevent the degenerative processes and inflammation associated with ageing. Thus, the aim of the present study was to evaluate the effects of resistance training on cytokines, leptin, resistin, and muscle strength in post-menopausal women. Thirty-five sedentary women (mean age 63.18 years, s = 4.8; height 1.64 m, s = 0.07; body mass 57.84 kg, s = 7.70) were recruited. The 16 weeks of periodized resistance training consisted of two weekly sessions of three sets of 6–14 repetition maximum. Maximal strength was tested in bench press, 45° leg press, and arm curl. Plasma tumour necrosis factor-α, interleukin-6, interleukin-15, leptin, and resistin were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Maximal strength on all measures was increased after 16 weeks. There were minor or no modifications in tumour necrosis factor-α and interleukin-15. Interleukin-6 was decreased 48 h after compared with baseline and declined after 16 weeks. Leptin decreased 24 h after compared with baseline and was reduced at baseline and 48 h after compared with pre-training. There was a decrease in resistin after 24 and 48 h compared with baseline and a decline in baseline and immediately after levels compared with pre-training. A possible explanation of the results of the present study is a lower production of pro-inflammatory cytokines by the innate immune system. Periodized resistance training seems to be an important intervention to reduce systemic inflammation in this population.

Effects of ovariectomy and resistance training on lipid content in skeletal muscle, liver, and heart; fat depots; and lipid profile

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of resistance training on skeletal muscle lipid content, liver lipid content, heart lipid content, fat depots, and lipid profile in ovariectomized rats. Wistar adult female rats were divided into 4 groups (n = 10 per group): sedentary (Sed-Intact), sedentary ovariectomized (Sed-Ovx), strength trained (ChronicEx-intact), and strength trained ovariectomized (ChronicEx-Ovx). A 12-week strength-training period was used, during which the animals climbed a 1.1-m vertical ladder with weights attached to their tails. The sessions were performed once every 3 days, with 4-9 climbs and 8-12 dynamic movements per climb. Ovariectomy increased liver lipid content and fat depots, and heart and muscle lipid content. There was an increase in the atherogenic index and a negative change in lipid profile because of the ovariectomy. Resistance training decreased lipid content in the liver, soleus, and tibialis anterior, decreased fat depots (mesenteric and retroperitoneal), and changed the lipid profile, independently of ovarian hormone status. These results indicate the potential benefits of resistance training as an alternative strategy to control the effects of ovariectomy on fat depot, lipid profile, and tissue lipid content.

Effects of resistance training on matrix metalloproteinase‐2 activity and biomechanical and physical properties of bone in ovariectomized and intact rats

The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of resistance training on the activity of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)‐2 and bone biomechanical properties in ovariectomized and intact rats. Forty‐eight female rats were divided into two distinct groups, ovariectomized (OVX) and intact (Int), which were subdivided into three similar subgroups: sedentary, acute exercise and chronic exercise. Rats performed a resistance training for 12 weeks in which animals climbed a vertical ladder of 1.1 m with weights attached to their tails. Sessions were performed with an interval of 3, 4–9 and 8–12 days scaled dynamic movements of climbing. Biomechanical and physical analyses were performed using a universal testing machine, and MMP‐2 activity analysis by zymography. Bone density (BD), mineral density (MD), maximum load and fracture load was reduced in sedentary and acute exercise OVX groups compared with the sedentary intact group (P<0.05); in contrast, chronically trained groups (OVX and Int) showed a significant increase in BD, MD and fracture load compared with all the other groups. MMP‐2 activity in chronically trained groups also showed a significant increase, while the sedentary OVX group showed a decrease in MMP‐2 activity compared with the intact sedentary group (P<0.05). Our results suggest that the resistance training proposed in our work was efficient in reverting the deleterious effects of ovariectomy on bone tissue, and also produced modeling effects in intact rats. On the other hand, ovariectomy reduced the activity of MMP‐2 and produced deleterious effects on bone tissue, mimicking menopause intrinsically.

Menopause: Highlighting the Effects of Resistance Training

The increase in lifespan and in the proportion of elderly women has increased the focus on menopause induced physiological alterations. These modifications are associated with the elevated risk of several pathologies such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, obesity, hypertension, dyslipidemia, non-alcoholic fat liver disease, among others. Because of estrogen levels decline, many tissue and organs (muscular, bone, adipose tissue and liver) are affected. Additionally, body composition suffers important modifications. In this sense, there is a growing body of concern in understanding the physiological mechanisms involved and establishing strategies to prevent and reverse the effects of menopause. The hormone reposition therapy, diet and physical exercise have been recommended. Among the diverse exercise modalities, resistance training is not commonly used as a therapeutic intervention in the treatment of menopause. Thus, the aim of this review was to analyze the physiological alterations on several organs and systems induced by menopause and ovariectomy (experimental model to reproduce menopause), as well as, to study the effects of resistance training in preventing and reverting these modifications. In conclusion, resistance training promotes beneficial effects on several organs and systems, mainly, on muscular, bone and adipose tissue, allowing for a better quality of life in this population.

Effects of ovariectomy and resistance training on MMP-2 activity in skeletal muscle

Matrix metallopeptidases (MMPs) are crucial to the maintenance of healthy tissue. The aim of this study was to investigate MMP-2 activity in gastrocnemius, soleus, tibialis anterior (TA), and extensor digitorium longus (EDL) muscle after resistance training in ovariectomized rats. Wistar adult female rats were grouped into 7 groups (n = 10 per group): sedentary (Sed-Intact); ovariectomized sedentary (Sed-Ovx); pseudo-ovariectomized sedentary (Sed-Pseudo); acute exercise (AcuteEx-Intact); ovariectomized acute exercise (AcuteEx-Ovx); strength trained (ChronicEx-Intact); and ovariectomized strength trained (ChronicEx-Ovx). A 12-week resistance training period, during which the animals climbed a 1.1-m vertical ladder with weights secured to their tails, was used. The sessions were performed once every 3 days, with 4-9 climbs and 8-12 dynamic movements per climb. The MMP-2 activity was analyzed by zymography. There was higher MMP-2 activity in soleus muscle in the ChronicEx-Intact and ChronicEx-Ovx groups, and lower MMP-2 activity in the AcuteEx-Ovx group, compared with the Sed-Intact group (p < or =0.05). The Sed-Ovx and ChronicEx-Ovx groups presented lower MMP-2 activity than the Sed-Intact group in TA. There was higher MMP-2 activity in AcuteEx-Intact and the AcuteEx-Ovx compared with the Sed-Intact and Sed-Ovx in TA, respectively (p < or = 0.05). In TA and EDL, training increased MMP-2 activity in the Sed-Intact group. No statistically significant alterations were observed for gastrocnemius muscle. Strength training increases MMP-2 activity in soleus, TA, and EDL muscle, which may be important for muscle remodeling. Ovariectomy downregulates MMP-2 in TA and EDL, which may compromise muscle function.

Resistance Training and Glycogen Content in Ovariectomized Rats

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of resistance training on glycogen content and muscle cross-sectional area (CSA) in ovariectomized rats. Wistar rats were divided into: sedentary; ovariectomized sedentary; resistance trained; and ovariectomized resistance trained. In the 12-week resistance training, the animals climbed a 1.1 m vertical ladder, 3 days per week, with 4-8 climbs. Cardiac, liver and muscle glycogen content was determined. After the 12-week resistance training period there was a higher hepatic and muscle glycogen content in the resistance training group compared with the other groups (p<0.01). CSA was higher in soleus for the resistance trained, ovariectomized resistance trained and sedentary compared with ovariectomized sedentary (p<0.05). Ovariectomy attenuated the increase in liver and muscle glycogen content, while soleus muscle cross-sectional area increased with resistance training, even in ovariectomized rats. Resistance training could be an important exercise to increase muscle function in situations of reduced estrogen and progesterone.

Circuit resistance training in sedentary women: body composition and serum cytokine levels.

Exercise can generate alterations in body composition and modulate the immune system. The objective of this study was to verify whether a circuit resistance training (CRT) protocol can increase lean body mass (LM), and reduce fat body mass (FM) and the percent of FM (%FM) of sedentary women, without inducing inflammatory responses, indicated by serum cytokine levels. The initial hypothesis was that CRT would improve body composition, without changing serum cytokine levels. The study consisted of 14 healthy, sedentary women, aged 33-45 years (mean +/- SD, 40.23 +/- 3.98 years), with a normal body mass index. They participated in 3 sessions per week of CRT, which included 2 rounds in 9 stations with 1 set of 8-12 repetition maximum at each station, for 10 weeks. During the 10-week CRT period, participants maintained their pretraining nutritional standard. Body composition was analysed with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry both pre- and post-training. Blood samples were collected after 96 h of rest pre- and post-training, and 5 min, 24 h, and 48 h after the second and last training sessions to measure serum cytokine levels by flow cytometry. The nutritional standard was accompanied throughout the study period with 24-h dietary recall. Increases in LM (35.937 +/- 4.926 to 39.130 +/- 4.950 kg) and decreases in FM (21.911 +/- 8.150 to 17.824 +/- 4.235 kg) and %FM (37.10 +/- 10.84 to 31.19 +/- 6.06), without concurrent changes in serum cytokine levels, and in the nutritional standard (alpha = 0.05). The proposed CRT improved body composition and did not induce any changes in serum cytokine levels characteristic of the inflammatory response in women.

Resistance training improves body composition and increases matrix metalloproteinase 2 activity in biceps and gastrocnemius muscles of diet-induced obese rats

OBJECTIVE: We investigated the influence of resistance training on body composition and matrix metalloproteinase 2 activity in skeletal muscles of rats fed a high-fat diet. METHODS: Thirty-two Wistar rats were divided into four experimental groups (n = 8/each) according to diet and exercise status: Control (standard diet), Obese Control (high-fat diet), Resistance Training (standard diet) and Obese Resistance Training (high-fat diet) groups. Animals were fed a high-fat diet for 12 weeks to promote excessive weight gain. Resistance Training groups performed 12 weeks of training periods after this period in a vertical ladder three times/week. Fat percentage, fat-free mass and fat mass were assessed using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, and matrix metalloproteinase 2 activity in biceps and gastrocnemius muscles was analyzed using zymography. RESULTS: Resistance training significantly reduced body and fat masses and fat percentages in both trained groups (p<0.05). The maximal carrying load between trained groups was not different, but relative force was higher in the Resistance Training group (p<0.05). Of note, increased matrix metalloproteinase 2 activity was noted in the tested muscles of both trained groups (p<0.05). CONCLUSION: In conclusion, altered body composition and muscle matrix metalloproteinase 2 activity promoted by excessive weight gain were positively modified by resistance training.

Effects of ovariectomy and resistance training on oxidative stress markers in the rat liver

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to assess the effects of resistance training on oxidative stress markers in the livers of ovariectomized rats. METHOD: Adult Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into the following four groups (n = 8 per group): sham-operated sedentary, ovariectomized sedentary, sham-operated resistance training, and ovariectomized resistance training. During the resistance training period, the animals climbed a 1.1-m vertical ladder with weights attached to their tails; the sessions were conducted 3 times per week, with 4-9 climbs and 8-12 dynamic movements per climb. The oxidative stress was assessed by measuring the levels of reduced glutathione and oxidized glutathione, the enzymatic activity of catalase and superoxide dismutase, lipid peroxidation, vitamin E concentrations, and the gene expression of glutathione peroxidase. RESULTS: The results showed significant reductions in the reduced glutathione/oxidized glutathione ratio (4.11±0.65 nmol/g tec), vitamin E concentration (55.36±11.11 nmol/g), and gene expression of glutathione peroxidase (0.49±0.16 arbitrary units) in the livers of ovariectomized rats compared with the livers of unovariectomized animals (5.71±0.71 nmol/g tec, 100.14±10.99 nmol/g, and 1.09±0.54 arbitrary units, respectively). Moreover, resistance training for 10 weeks was not able to reduce the oxidative stress in the livers of ovariectomized rats and induced negative changes in the hepatic anti-oxidative/oxidative balance. CONCLUSION: Our findings indicate that the resistance training program used in this study was not able to attenuate the hepatic oxidative damage caused by ovariectomy and increased the hepatic oxidative stress.

Acute resistance training affects cell surface markers for apoptosis and migration in CD4+ and CD8+ lymphocytes

The purpose of the present study was to examine the acute effects of resistance training (RT) on CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T lymphocytes apoptosis (annexin V⁺) and migration (CX₃CR1). Twelve subjects performed two RT sessions (3 sets of 9 exercises) with 1 min (Hyper-1) and 3 min (Hyper-3) of rest-interval length between sets and exercises. CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ cells count displayed no change following Hyper-1 and Hyper-3. There was an increase in the percentage of CD4⁺ positive for annexin V⁺ and CX₃CR1⁺ immediately after and 24 h post Hyper-1. Percentage of CD4⁺ positive for annexin V⁺ increased 2 and 24 h post Hyper-3, and decreased after CXCR1⁺ for the same time-points. There was an increase in CD8⁺ positive for annexin V⁺ and CX₃CR1⁺ immediately after, 2 and 24 h post Hyper-1 and Hyper-3, while no differences were found between Hyper-1 and Hyper-3. Acute RT increase the apoptosis and migration of CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ lymphocytes even 24h after exercise, with minimal effects of rest-interval length.