Giles Barrett

Ethnic Minority Business: Theoretical Discourse in Britain and North America

One of the most novel features of recent labour market change in Europe and North America has been the increasing prominence of ethnic minority self-employment. Two decades of radical economic restructuring have brought about a marked shift away from employment in large ® rms to selfemployment in small ones; and, somewhat paradoxically, this trend has been most marked among members of certain migrant groups, often originating in the post-colonial Third World. At the most super® cial level this is evident in the increasingly high visibility, especially in the largest urban centres, of shops and services owned by immigrant-origin entrepreneurs. The South Asian and Chinese-owned small ® rms now so familiar a feature of the British urban scene have their counterparts in the North African and Asian businesses proliferating in parts of France (Dreyfus, 1992; Ma Mung and Simon, 1990), the Surinamese enterprises of Amsterdam (Boissevain, 1992), the Turkish enterprises of Germany (Blaschke and Ersoz, 1986) and above all the multitudinous polytechnic small business economy of North America, where well over 1m ® rms are classed as minority-owned (Light et al., 1994). In quantitative terms at least spectacle is borne out by statistics. In Britain the self-employment rate for people of Chinese ethnicity was recorded as 14.9 per cent of all economically active Chinese as opposed to 7 per cent for whites, while for Indians and Pakistanis the equivalent ® gures were 11.4 and 8.3 (OPCS, 1993). Comparisons with earlier benchmarks reveal these ® gures to be the product of two decades of rapid, sometimes breath-taking, growth (Table 1). Note here that the 1991 Census appears to underplay ethnic minority self-employment in comparison with other earlier or contemporaneous estimates. (See Blackburn, 1994; Curran and Burrows, 1988.) For the US, Light (1984) cites a dozen or so ethnic minorities as overrepresented in self-employment, with Jews (almost the stereotypical case), Chinese, Japanese and Koreans in the vanguard (see also Aldrich and Waldinger, 1990). In France too immigrant minorities are similarly prominent (Ma Mung, 1994; Boissevain, 1984). The overall impression is that ethnic minority capitalism is now virtually a standard feature of advanced urban economies and that, notwithstanding recession and economic crisis, it is waxing rather than waning (Ward, 1987a; Blaschke et al., 1990). Almost inevitably, the scholarly literature on ethnic minority business ownership has multiplied almost as rapidly as its subject

The economic embeddedness of immigrant enterprise in Britain

Immigrant‐owned business in Britain is reviewed in the light of both cultural and structural economic perspectives. The latter view is emphasised. Concentration in trades which are in decline, or are labour intensive, or both, creates acute competitive pressures which are exacerbated by the growing presence of corporate rivals in many markets. Real and perceived bias on the part of banks helps to limit diversification. Attempts to move away from characteristic activities, both geographically and sectorally, have had only limited impact. Accumulation of class resources holds the greatest promise for entrepreneurial success.

Socio-economic and policy dimensions of the mixed embeddedness of ethnic minority business in Britain

Ethnic minority businesses in Britain are examined in relation to the concept of mixed embeddedness. Earlier intellectual approaches emphasising cultural factors, urban and economic contexts, and public policy are identified. Ethnic minority businesses are shown to be typically small, to compete in saturated spatial markets and to be concentrated in economically vulnerable sectors. Moreover their fragile position has been further destabilised by the effects of government policy. Special attention is given to the repeal of the Shops Act, which limited the opening hours of shops. We conclude that an unintended outcome was the entry of large-scale chains into the formerly protected niches of South Asian-owned businesses. This represents a catastrophic occurrence for some ethnic minority firms. Meanwhile, public policy related to enterprise support and the regeneration of the urban fabric has been largely ineffective in the arena of ethnic minority business. The whole picture is complicated by generational differences in minority communities and by continuing restrictions on immigration.

Market Potential as a Decisive Influence on the Performance of Ethnic Minority Business

Since the dawn of the 1980s much scholarly energy has been devoted to understanding the remarkable against-the-tide rise of ethnic business. Throughout virtually the entire advanced capitalist realm, members of disadvantaged racialised minorities have been in the vanguard of the entrepreneurial explosion that has come to be seen as a hallmark feature of the age. An acutely paradoxical development defying easy explanation, the development of minority-owned business — ‘development’ here being understood as emergence, numerical growth, expansion and, above all, commercial performance and earning capacity — has been addressed in a voluminous, proliferating and somewhat confusing literature (Barrett et al., 1996; Ram and Jones, forthcoming). At the extremes, explanations range from the entreprogenic properties of traditional religious beliefs imported by migrants into modern society as part of their cultural baggage (Werbner, 1984);1 to self-employment as a last-ditch survival option in the face of what Parker (1994) calls ‘the twin perils of racism and recession’ (Jones, 1989).

Overcoming the obstacles? Access to bank finance for African‐Caribbean enterprise

Abstract Small enterprises under the ownership of persons of African‐Caribbean origin are a relatively under‐researched phenomenon (Barrett et al. 1996). This article seeks to partially fill this research void by drawing on evidence collected from in‐depth interviews. The article highlights strategies utilised by African‐Caribbeans in financing their businesses, particularly in respect of their take‐up of bank finance. Contrasts are drawn with a control sample of South Asian and white businesses. The nature of the finance used for the business start‐up is exposed. Evidence is presented in a number of formats including quantitative and qualitative data. The article concludes that access to a key source of start‐up capital, bank finance, is still a major stumbling block for prospective African‐Caribbean business owners. This resource gap threatens the sustainability of their enterprises and the long‐term development of an African‐Caribbean business‐owning class.

Black minority ethnic communities and levels of satisfaction with policing : findings from a study in the north of England

Using data from an original qualitative study carried out during 2009–10 with a sample located in the north of England (NES), this article considers the satisfaction levels of black minority ethnic (BME) groups with a north of England police force (NEPF). The study sought to examine existing levels (as well as improve) satisfaction with police responses among BME populations. This was done by asking local BME communities about their encounters with NEPF, including how they felt the police should respond when they are a victim of crime and more broadly how the police could better engage with BME populations. What emerged in the responses was not just practical ‘solutions’ for ‘better engagement’ but a series of narratives that placed the broader historical and contemporary complexities, and recent developments of BME relations with the police into focus. The article begins by exploring current literature and claims to knowledge in the areas of problematic police responses, especially with the use of ‘race’1 in stop and search, and developments in communicating police progress. The literature setting the context draws upon case studies from the north of England but also more generally from across the UK, using examples that while geographically located beyond the NES context have had significant impact more broadly. The findings section discusses the qualitative data from the study and explores the emerging themes of communication and the local community nexus, disconnections from young people and police (ab)use of stop and search powers. The article highlights how in addition to actually policing in a fair way, direct and indirect communication plays a key role in satisfaction levels with police services. Achieving effective communication between the police force and BME groups is a complex matter, although not impossible, mediated at times by local and historical precedents with different BME groups.

An emerging African business quarter amid urban decline

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to describe and assess the sustainability of an emergent West African business quarter in Manchester, UK. Comparisons are drawn with developments among other ethnic groups. The research is placed in the context of international literature on ethnic entrepreneurship.Design/methodology/approach – The research is primarily qualitative, using semi‐structured interviews and conversational life histories with a sample of West African retail businesses and a comparative group of other local businesses. Some use is made of quantitative information from census and other public data sources.Findings – New West African enterprises appear, over the last few years, to have stabilised the declining retail district of Moston Lane in north Manchester. These new businesses are however confined to few sectors: food stores, hair and beauty salons, cafes, Internet cafes and clothing shops. These developments may parallel the success of longer established retail quarters in Manchester an...

Cannabis Use in an English Community: Acceptance, Anxieties, and the Liminality of Drug Prohibition

Cannabis occupies an ambiguous social, cultural, economic, and legal position, meaning that the way communities construct, interact with, and interpret drug markets is a complicated and uncertain process. This article seeks to explain these ambiguities by investigating the place of cannabis use in a UK borough, drawing on qualitative empirical data collated from a sample (N = 68) of practitioners, local residents, cannabis users, and their families. In doing so, the article employs the concept of liminality (whereby individuals and spaces occupy a position at both ends of a threshold) to explore how community behaviors and norms relate to issues of space, harm, and drug policy. The article contextualizes the position of cannabis use within the fieldwork site, exploring a series of competing contradictions that divided participants between the rhetoric and reality of drug prohibition. Drug prohibition suggests cannabis use to be dangerous, which prompted concern. However, the lived reality of prohibition for residents sat in stark juxtaposition: The drug was used commonly and publicly, was effectively decriminalized, and its use (reluctantly) accommodated. This malaise placed residents within what is described here as the liminality of drug prohibition, in which notions of the licit and illicit became blurred and whereby the illegality of cannabis augmented anxieties yet simultaneously proved a barrier to addressing them. In conclusion, the current study provides further evidence of prohibitionist drug policy proliferating rather than mitigating drug-related harms.

Befriending and Re-ablement Service: a better alternative in an age of austerity

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to share the findings of a research evaluation into a Befriending and Re-ablement Service (BARS) which offers a host of positive outcomes such as reduced loneliness and keeping as well as possible for a growing segment of the world’s population. The recent increase in longevity is one of humanity’s great success stories. But ageing comes at a price, and decision takers worry about the stresses and strains of an ageing society. Design/methodology/approach Following a literature review, this paper presents the findings of an evaluation of an alternative innovative form of support for older people, namely BARS, that has been developed on Merseyside. Semi- and unstructured interviews were carried out with stakeholders including service users and carers. A cost-benefit analysis is also reported. Finally the theoretical and policy implications of this research are explored. Findings Befriending and re-ablement officers is both a socially and economically cost effective means of enhancing independent living among older people, reducing loneliness and isolation that can contribute to ill health. The research shows that funding for the BARS scheme should be sustained and expanded, despite or because of the current era of cutbacks in UK and international service provision. Originality/value The paper highlights the value, role and importance of both befriending and re-ablement in a time of acute public and voluntary sector funding pressures. The paper is of value to a range of stakeholder groups such as older people, local and central governments and health care commissioners.