Giorgio Grisetti

Improved Techniques for Grid Mapping With Rao-Blackwellized Particle Filters

Recently, Rao-Blackwellized particle filters (RBPF) have been introduced as an effective means to solve the simultaneous localization and mapping problem. This approach uses a particle filter in which each particle carries an individual map of the environment. Accordingly, a key question is how to reduce the number of particles. In this paper, we present adaptive techniques for reducing this number in a RBPF for learning grid maps. We propose an approach to compute an accurate proposal distribution, taking into account not only the movement of the robot, but also the most recent observation. This drastically decreases the uncertainty about the robots pose in the prediction step of the filter. Furthermore, we present an approach to selectively carry out resampling operations, which seriously reduces the problem of particle depletion. Experimental results carried out with real mobile robots in large-scale indoor, as well as outdoor, environments illustrate the advantages of our methods over previous approaches

G 2 o: A general framework for graph optimization

Many popular problems in robotics and computer vision including various types of simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) or bundle adjustment (BA) can be phrased as least squares optimization of an error function that can be represented by a graph. This paper describes the general structure of such problems and presents g2o, an open-source C++ framework for optimizing graph-based nonlinear error functions. Our system has been designed to be easily extensible to a wide range of problems and a new problem typically can be specified in a few lines of code. The current implementation provides solutions to several variants of SLAM and BA. We provide evaluations on a wide range of real-world and simulated datasets. The results demonstrate that while being general g2o offers a performance comparable to implementations of state-of-the-art approaches for the specific problems.

A Tutorial on Graph-Based SLAM

Being able to build a map of the environment and to simultaneously localize within this map is an essential skill for mobile robots navigating in unknown environments in absence of external referencing systems such as GPS. This so-called simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) problem has been one of the most popular research topics in mobile robotics for the last two decades and efficient approaches for solving this task have been proposed. One intuitive way of formulating SLAM is to use a graph whose nodes correspond to the poses of the robot at different points in time and whose edges represent constraints between the poses. The latter are obtained from observations of the environment or from movement actions carried out by the robot. Once such a graph is constructed, the map can be computed by finding the spatial configuration of the nodes that is mostly consistent with the measurements modeled by the edges. In this paper, we provide an introductory description to the graph-based SLAM problem. Furthermore, we discuss a state-of-the-art solution that is based on least-squares error minimization and exploits the structure of the SLAM problems during optimization. The goal of this tutorial is to enable the reader to implement the proposed methods from scratch.

Information Gain-based Exploration Using Rao-Blackwellized Particle Filters

This paper presents an integrated approach to exploration, mapping, and localization. Our algorithm uses a highly efficient Rao-Blackwellized particle filter to represent the posterior about maps and poses. It applies a decision-theoretic framework which simultaneously considers the uncertainty in the map and in the pose of the vehicle to evaluate potential actions. Thereby, it trades off the cost of executing an action with the expected information gain and takes into account possible sensor measurements gathered along the path taken by the robot. We furthermore describe how to utilize the properties of the Rao-Blackwellization to efficiently compute the expected information gain. We present experimental results obtained in the real world and in simulation to demonstrate the effectiveness of our approach.

A Fully Autonomous Indoor Quadrotor

Recently, there has been increased interest in the development of autonomous flying vehicles. However, as most of the proposed approaches are suitable for outdoor operation, only a few techniques have been designed for indoor environments, where the systems cannot rely on the Global Positioning System (GPS) and, therefore, have to use their exteroceptive sensors for navigation. In this paper, we present a general navigation system that enables a small-sized quadrotor system to autonomously operate in indoor environments. To achieve this, we systematically extend and adapt techniques that have been successfully applied on ground robots. We describe all algorithms and present a broad set of experiments, which illustrate that they enable a quadrotor robot to reliably and autonomously navigate in indoor environments.

Towards a navigation system for autonomous indoor flying

Recently there has been increasing research on the development of autonomous flying vehicles.Whereas most of the proposed approaches are suitable for outdoor operation, only a few techniques have been designed for indoor environments. In this paper we present a general system consisting of sensors and algorithms which enables a small sized flying vehicle to operate indoors. This is done by adapting techniques which have been successfully applied on ground robots. We released our system as open-source with the intention to provide the community with a new framework for building applications for indoor flying robots. We present a set of experiments to validate our system on an open source quadrotor.

A tree parameterization for efficiently computing maximum likelihood maps using gradient descent

In 2006, Olson et al. presented a novel approach to address the graph-based simultaneous localization and mapping problem by applying stochastic gradient descent to minimize the error introduced by constraints. Together with multi-level relaxation, this is one of the most robust and efficient maximum likelihood techniques published so far. In this paper, we present an extension of Olsons algorithm. It applies a novel parameterization of the nodes in the graph that significantly improves the performance and enables us to cope with arbitrary network topologies. The latter allows us to bound the complexity of the algorithm to the size of the mapped area and not to the length of the trajectory as it is the case with both previous approaches. We implemented our technique and compared it to multi-level relaxation and Olsons algorithm. As we demonstrate in simulated and in real world experiments, our approach converges faster than the other approaches and yields accurate maps of the environment.

Nonlinear Constraint Network Optimization for Efficient Map Learning

Learning models of the environment is one of the fundamental tasks of mobile robots since maps are needed for a wide range of robotic applications, such as navigation and transportation tasks, service robotic applications, and several others. In the past, numerous efficient approaches to map learning have been proposed. Most of them, however, assume that the robot lives on a plane. In this paper, we present a highly efficient maximum-likelihood approach that is able to solve 3-D and 2-D problems. Our approach addresses the so-called graph-based formulation of simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) and can be seen as an extension of Olsons algorithm toward non-flat environments. It applies a novel parameterization of the nodes of the graph that significantly improves the performance of the algorithm and can cope with arbitrary network topologies. The latter allows us to bound the complexity of the algorithm to the size of the mapped area and not to the length of the trajectory. Furthermore, our approach is able to appropriately distribute the roll, pitch, and yaw error over a sequence of poses in 3-D mapping problems. We implemented our technique and compared it with multiple other graph-based SLAM solutions. As we demonstrate in simulated and real-world experiments, our method converges faster than the other approaches and yields accurate maps of the environment.

On measuring the accuracy of SLAM algorithms

In this paper, we address the problem of creating an objective benchmark for evaluating SLAM approaches. We propose a framework for analyzing the results of a SLAM approach based on a metric for measuring the error of the corrected trajectory. This metric uses only relative relations between poses and does not rely on a global reference frame. This overcomes serious shortcomings of approaches using a global reference frame to compute the error. Our method furthermore allows us to compare SLAM approaches that use different estimation techniques or different sensor modalities since all computations are made based on the corrected trajectory of the robot.We provide sets of relative relations needed to compute our metric for an extensive set of datasets frequently used in the robotics community. The relations have been obtained by manually matching laser-range observations to avoid the errors caused by matching algorithms. Our benchmark framework allows the user to easily analyze and objectively compare different SLAM approaches.

Hierarchical optimization on manifolds for online 2D and 3D mapping

In this paper, we present a new hierarchical optimization solution to the graph-based simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) problem. During online mapping, the approach corrects only the coarse structure of the scene and not the overall map. In this way, only updates for the parts of the map that need to be considered for making data associations are carried out. The hierarchical approach provides accurate non-linear map estimates while being highly efficient. Our error minimization approach exploits the manifold structure of the underlying space. In this way, it avoids singularities in the state space parameterization. The overall approach is accurate, efficient, designed for online operation, overcomes singularities, provides a hierarchical representation, and outperforms a series of state-of-the-art methods.