Giuliana Aquilanti

X-ray Absorption Near-Edge Structure and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Study of the Lithium–Sulfur Battery and its Components

Understanding the mechanism(s) of polysulfide formation and knowledge about the interactions of sulfur and polysulfides with a host matrix and electrolyte are essential for the development of long-cycle-life lithium-sulfur (Li-S) batteries. To achieve this goal, new analytical tools need to be developed. Herein, sulfur K-edge X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES) and (6,7) Li magic-angle spinning (MAS) NMR studies on a Li-S battery and its sulfur components are reported. The characterization of different stoichiometric mixtures of sulfur and lithium compounds (polysulfides), synthesized through a chemical route with all-sulfur-based components in the Li-S battery (sulfur and electrolyte), enables the understanding of changes in the batteries measured in postmortem mode and in operando mode. A detailed XANES analysis is performed on different battery components (cathode composite and separator). The relative amounts of each sulfur compound in the cathode and separator are determined precisely, according to the linear combination fit of the XANES spectra, by using reference compounds. Complementary information about the lithium species within the cathode are obtained by using (7) Li MAS NMR spectroscopy. The setup for the in operando XANES measurements can be viewed as a valuable analytical tool that can aid the understanding of the sulfur environment in Li-S batteries.

Water oxidation surface mechanisms replicated by a totally inorganic tetraruthenium–oxo molecular complex

Solar-to-fuel energy conversion relies on the invention of efficient catalysts enabling water oxidation through low-energy pathways. Our aerobic life is based on this strategy, mastered by the natural Photosystem II enzyme, using a tetranuclear Mn–oxo complex as oxygen evolving center. Within artificial devices, water can be oxidized efficiently on tailored metal-oxide surfaces such as RuO2. The quest for catalyst optimization in vitro is plagued by the elusive description of the active sites on bulk oxides. Although molecular mimics of the natural catalyst have been proposed, they generally suffer from oxidative degradation under multiturnover regime. Here we investigate a nano-sized Ru4–polyoxometalate standing as an efficient artificial catalyst featuring a totally inorganic molecular structure with enhanced stability. Experimental and computational evidence reported herein indicates that this is a unique molecular species mimicking oxygenic RuO2 surfaces. Ru4–polyoxometalate bridges the gap between homogeneous and heterogeneous water oxidation catalysis, leading to a breakthrough system. Density functional theory calculations show that the catalytic efficiency stems from the optimal distribution of the free energy cost to form reaction intermediates, in analogy with metal-oxide catalysts, thus providing a unifying picture for the two realms of water oxidation catalysis. These correlations among the mechanism of reaction, thermodynamic efficiency, and local structure of the active sites provide the key guidelines for the rational design of superior molecular catalysts and composite materials designed with a bottom–up approach and atomic control.

Unraveling halide hydration: A high dilution approach

The hydration properties of halide aqua ions have been investigated combining classical Molecular Dynamics (MD) with Extended X-ray Absorption Fine Structure (EXAFS) spectroscopy. Three halide-water interaction potentials recently developed [M. M. Reif and P. H. Hünenberger, J. Chem. Phys. 134, 144104 (2011)], along with three plausible choices for the value of the absolute hydration free energy of the proton (ΔG [minus sign in circle symbol]hyd[H+]), have been checked for their capability to properly describe the structural properties of halide aqueous solutions, by comparing the MD structural results with EXAFS experimental data. A very good agreement between theory and experiment has been obtained with one parameter set, namely LE, thus strengthening preliminary evidences for a ΔG [minus sign in circle symbol]hyd[H] value of -1100 kJ mol(-1) [M. M. Reif and P. H. Hünenberger, J. Chem. Phys. 134, 144104 (2011)]. The Cl(-), Br(-), and I(-) ions have been found to form an unstructured and disordered first hydration shell in aqueous solution, with a broad distribution of instantaneous coordination numbers. Conversely, the F(-) ion shows more ordered and defined first solvation shell, with only two statistically relevant coordination geometries (six and sevenfold complexes). Our thorough investigation on the effect of halide ions on the microscopic structure of water highlights that the perturbation induced by the Cl(-), Br(-), and I(-) ions does not extend beyond the ion first hydration shell, and the structure of water in the F(-) second shell is also substantially unaffected by the ion.

X-Ray absorption spectroscopy investigation of 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide salts.

X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) has been used to unveil the bromide ion local coordination structure in 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide [C(n)mim]Br ionic liquids (ILs) with different alkyl chains. The XAS spectrum of 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide has been found to be different from those of the other members of the series, from the butyl to the decyl derivatives, that have all identical XAS spectra. This result indicates that starting from 1-buthyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide the local molecular arrangement around the bromide anion is the same independently from the length of the alkyl chain, and that the imidazolium head groups in the liquid ILs with long alkyl chains assume locally the same orientation as in the [C(4)mim]Br crystal. With this study we show that the XAS technique is an effective direct tool for unveiling the local structural arrangements around selected atoms in ILs.

Structural characterization of zinc(II) chloride in aqueous solution and in the protic ionic liquid ethyl ammonium nitrate by x-ray absorption spectroscopy

Extended x-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) spectroscopy has been used to investigate the species and structures existing in a series of ZnCl(2)-H(2)O-NaCl solutions with different chloride/zinc ratios and in a solution of ZnCl(2) in the protic ionic liquid ethyl ammonium nitrate (EAN). The average coordination numbers and distances of zinc species were determined from the analysis of the EXAFS data. In aqueous solution the number of chloride ions tightly bounded to Zn(2+) is significantly related to the chloride/zinc ratio, and no inner complex formation between Zn(2+) and Cl(-) ions has been detected for low ZnCl(2) concentration (0.1 and 0.2 M). Conversely, in the same concentration range (0.13 M) the ZnCl(2) species do not dissociate in EAN and the Zn(2+) first coordination shell has two chloride ions and is completed by two oxygen atoms of the nitrate anion. The results of this investigation show that notwithstanding the existence of similar characteristics between EAN and water, the solvation properties of the two solvents are markedly different.

Enhanced Electrocatalytic Oxygen Evolution in Au–Fe Nanoalloys

Oxygen evolution reaction (OER) is the most critical step in water splitting, still limiting the development of efficient alkaline water electrolyzers. Here we investigate the OER activity of Au-Fe nanoalloys obtained by laser-ablation synthesis in solution. This method allows a high amount of iron (up to 11 at %) to be incorporated into the gold lattice, which is not possible in Au-Fe alloys synthesized by other routes, due to thermodynamic constraints. The Au0.89 Fe0.11 nanoalloys exhibit strongly enhanced OER in comparison to the individual pure metal nanoparticles, lowering the onset of OER and increasing up to 20 times the current density in alkaline aqueous solutions. Such a remarkable electrocatalytic activity is associated to nanoalloying, as demonstrated by comparative examples with physical mixtures of gold and iron nanoparticles. These results open attractive scenarios to the use of kinetically stable nanoalloys for catalysis and energy conversion.

The coordination core of Ag(I) N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) complexes with anticancer properties as revealed by synchrotron radiation X-ray absorption spectroscopy

An X-ray absorption structural study has been carried out on three N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) complexes of group 11 metals (Ag, Au), which were previously shown to possess promising anticancer properties. Extended X-ray Absorption Fine Structure (EXAFS) data concerning the Au complex, besides confirming the structure already available by crystallography, allowed the comparison between the crystalline and the amorphous state of the same compound. The EXAFS study conducted on the most biologically active complex, {[ImB]2AgCl}, revealed the occurrence of an unusual coordination geometry, where two ligand molecules and one chlorine atom interact with the Ag core to form a three coordinate complex. The present analysis firmly underlines the reliability of the EXAFS approach when X-ray diffraction data are not available. The suitable strategy, also including the statistical evaluation of the results, which has permitted us to build up the structural model for fitting the Ag complex starting from the Au one, is highlighted here.

Structural properties of geminal dicationic ionic liquid/water mixtures: A theoretical and experimental insight

The structural behavior of geminal dicationic ionic liquid 1,n-bis[3-methylimidazolium-1-yl] alkane bromide ([Cn(mim)2]Br2)/water mixtures has been studied using extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) spectroscopy in combination with molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. The properties of the mixtures are investigated as a function of both water concentration and alkyl-bridge chain length. The very good agreement between the EXAFS experimental data and the theoretical curves calculated from the MD structural results has proven the validity of the theoretical framework used for all of the investigated systems. In all the solutions the water molecules are preferentially coordinated with the Br(-) ion, even if a complex network of interactions among dications, anions and water molecules takes place. The local molecular arrangement around the bromide ion is found to change with increasing water content, as more and more water molecules are accomodated in the Br(-) first coordination shell. Moreover, with the decrease of the alkyl-bridge chain length, the interactions between dications and anions increase, with Br(-) forming a bridge between the two imidazolium rings of the same dication. On the other hand, in [Cn(mim)2]Br2/water mixtures with long alkyl-bridge chains peculiar internal arrangements of the dications are found, leading to different structural features of geminal dicationic ionic liquids as compared to their monocationic counterparts.

Disentangling magnetic core/shell morphologies in Co-based nanoparticles

Co-based nanoparticles (NPs) have been extensively explored due to their prospective applications in areas as diverse as efficient water treatment (Co NPs), hydrogen generation (CoO NPs) and combustion catalysis (Co3O4 NPs). In recent years, the emergence of Co-based entities as bi-magnetic core/shell NPs has opened new avenues for their innovative use in fields ranging from energy storage and magnetic recording to biomedicine. The control and characterization of these nanomaterials thus becomes of paramount importance for targeting their foreseen applications. Here, we show that the intentional oxidation of metallic Co NPs with different sizes (3–50 nm) gives rise to a wide variety of core/shell morphologies including Co, CoO and Co3O4 phases. Bridging the information coming from high-resolution transmission electron microscopy, X-ray absorption spectroscopy and magnetic measurements gives us a self-consistent picture that describes the role played by the morphology and microstructure in the magnetism of Co and its oxides at the nanoscale.

Local vibrational properties of GaAs studied by extended X-ray absorption fine structure

Extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) has been measured at both the K edges of gallium and arsenic in GaAs, from 14 to 300 K, to investigate the local vibrational and thermodynamic behaviour in terms of bond expansion, parallel, and perpendicular mean square relative displacements and third cumulant. The separate analysis of the two edges allows a self-consistent check of the results and suggests that a residual influence of Ga EXAFS at the As edge cannot be excluded. The relation between bond expansion, lattice expansion, and expansion due to anharmonicity of the effective potential is quantitatively clarified. The comparison with previous EXAFS results on other crystals with the diamond or zincblende structure shows that the values of a number of parameters determined from EXAFS are clearly correlated with the fractional ionicity and with the strength and temperature interval of the lattice negative expansion.