Giuseppe Astarita

Circadian Control of the NAD+ Salvage Pathway by CLOCK-SIRT1

Circadian Oscillations The 24-hour day-night cycle plays an important role in mammalian physiology and behavior and, as most travelers are well aware, there is an intimate link between our in-built circadian clocks and metabolic rhythms. This link is in part forged by the protein deacetylase SIRT1, which regulates the clocks molecular circuitry. SIRT1 uses as a cofactor the cellular metabolite NAD+, which is synthesized through a salvage pathway that includes the enzyme nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (NAMPT) (see the Perspective by Wijnen). Ramsey et al. (p. 651; published online 19 March) and Nakahata et al. (p. 654, published online 12 March) now show that NAMPT and NAD+ levels oscillate during the daily 24-hour cycle and that this oscillation is regulated by the circadian clock. Furthermore, the oscillations in NAD+ modulate the activity of SIRT1 feeding back into the circadian clock. A transcriptional-enzymatic feedback loop controls interactions between metabolism and circadian rhythms in mouse cells. Many metabolic and physiological processes display circadian oscillations. We have shown that the core circadian regulator, CLOCK, is a histone acetyltransferase whose activity is counterbalanced by the nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+)–dependent histone deacetylase SIRT1. Here we show that intracellular NAD+ levels cycle with a 24-hour rhythm, an oscillation driven by the circadian clock. CLOCK:BMAL1 regulates the circadian expression of NAMPT (nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase), an enzyme that provides a rate-limiting step in the NAD+ salvage pathway. SIRT1 is recruited to the Nampt promoter and contributes to the circadian synthesis of its own coenzyme. Using the specific inhibitor FK866, we demonstrated that NAMPT is required to modulate circadian gene expression. Our findings in mouse embryo fibroblasts reveal an interlocked transcriptional-enzymatic feedback loop that governs the molecular interplay between cellular metabolism and circadian rhythms.

The Lipid Messenger OEA Links Dietary Fat Intake to Satiety

The association between fat consumption and obesity underscores the need to identify physiological signals that control fat intake. Previous studies have shown that feeding stimulates small-intestinal mucosal cells to produce the lipid messenger oleoylethanolamide (OEA) which, when administered as a drug, decreases meal frequency by engaging peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors-alpha (PPAR-alpha). Here, we report that duodenal infusion of fat stimulates OEA mobilization in the proximal small intestine, whereas infusion of protein or carbohydrate does not. OEA production utilizes dietary oleic acid as a substrate and is disrupted in mutant mice lacking the membrane fatty-acid transporter CD36. Targeted disruption of CD36 or PPAR-alpha abrogates the satiety response induced by fat. The results suggest that activation of small-intestinal OEA mobilization, enabled by CD36-mediated uptake of dietary oleic acid, serves as a molecular sensor linking fat ingestion to satiety.

A neuroscientist's guide to lipidomics

Nerve cells mould the lipid fabric of their membranes to ease vesicle fusion, regulate ion fluxes and create specialized microenvironments that contribute to cellular communication. The chemical diversity of membrane lipids controls protein traffic, facilitates recognition between cells and leads to the production of hundreds of molecules that carry information both within and across cells. With so many roles, it is no wonder that lipids make up half of the human brain in dry weight. The objective of neural lipidomics is to understand how these molecules work together; this difficult task will greatly benefit from technical advances that might enable the testing of emerging hypotheses.

PER2 controls lipid metabolism by direct regulation of PPARγ

Accumulating evidence highlights intriguing interplays between circadian and metabolic pathways. We show that PER2 directly and specifically represses PPARγ, a nuclear receptor critical in adipogenesis, insulin sensitivity, and inflammatory response. PER2-deficient mice display altered lipid metabolism with drastic reduction of total triacylglycerol and nonesterified fatty acids. PER2 exerts its inhibitory function by blocking PPARγ recruitment to target promoters and thereby transcriptional activation. Whole-genome microarray profiling demonstrates that PER2 dictates the specificity of PPARγ transcriptional activity. Indeed, lack of PER2 results in enhanced adipocyte differentiation of cultured fibroblasts. PER2 targets S112 in PPARγ, a residue whose mutation has been associated with altered lipid metabolism. Lipidomic profiling demonstrates that PER2 is necessary for normal lipid metabolism in white adipocyte tissue. Our findings support a scenario in which PER2 controls the proadipogenic activity of PPARγ by operating as its natural modulator, thereby revealing potential avenues of pharmacological and therapeutic intervention.

Selective inhibition of 2-AG hydrolysis enhances endocannabinoid signaling in hippocampus

The functions of 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), the most abundant endocannabinoid found in the brain, remain largely unknown. Here we show that two previously unknown inhibitors of monoacylglycerol lipase, a presynaptic enzyme that hydrolyzes 2-AG, increase 2-AG levels and enhance retrograde signaling from pyramidal neurons to GABAergic terminals in the hippocampus. These results establish a role for 2-AG in synaptic plasticity and point to monoacylglycerol lipase as a possible drug target.

Food intake regulates oleoylethanolamide formation and degradation in the proximal small intestine.

Oleoylethanolamide (OEA) is a lipid mediator that inhibits food intake by activating the nuclear receptor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α. In the rodent small intestine OEA levels decrease during food deprivation and increase upon refeeding, suggesting that endogenous OEA may participate in the regulation of satiety. Here we show that feeding stimulates OEA mobilization in the mucosal layer of rat duodenum and jejunum but not in the serosal layer from the same intestinal segments in other sections of the gastrointestinal tract (stomach, ileum, colon) or in a broad series of internal organs and tissues (e.g. liver, brain, heart, plasma). Feeding also increases the levels of other unsaturated fatty acid ethanolamides (FAEs) (e.g. linoleoylethanolamide) without affecting those of saturated FAEs (e.g. palmitoylethanolamide). Feeding-induced OEA mobilization is accompanied by enhanced accumulation of OEA-generating N-acylphosphatidylethanolamines (NAPEs) increased activity and expression of the OEA-synthesizing enzyme NAPE-phospholipase D, and decreased activity and expression of the OEAdegrading enzyme fatty acid amide hydrolase. Immunostaining studies revealed that NAPE-phospholipase D and fatty acid amide hydrolase are expressed in intestinal enterocytes and lamina propria cells. Collectively, these results indicate that nutrient availability controls OEA mobilization in the mucosa of the proximal intestine through a concerted regulation of OEA biosynthesis and degradation.

Selective N-acylethanolamine-hydrolyzing acid amidase inhibition reveals a key role for endogenous palmitoylethanolamide in inflammation

Identifying points of control in inflammation is essential to discovering safe and effective antiinflammatory medicines. Palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) is a naturally occurring lipid amide that, when administered as a drug, inhibits inflammatory responses by engaging peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α (PPAR-α). PEA is preferentially hydrolyzed by the cysteine amidase N-acylethanolamine-hydrolyzing acid amidase (NAAA), which is highly expressed in macrophages. Here we report the discovery of a potent and selective NAAA inhibitor, N-[(3S)-2-oxo-3-oxetanyl]-3-phenylpropanamide [(S)-OOPP], and show that this inhibitor increases PEA levels in activated leukocytes and blunts responses induced by inflammatory stimuli both in vitro and in vivo. These effects are stereoselective, mimicked by exogenous PEA, and abolished by PPAR-α deletion. (S)-OOPP also attenuates inflammation and tissue damage and improves recovery of motor function in mice subjected to spinal cord trauma. The results suggest that PEA activation of PPAR-α in leukocytes serves as an early stop signal that contrasts the progress of inflammation. The PEA-hydrolyzing amidase NAAA may provide a previously undescribed target for antiinflammatory medicines.

A key role for diacylglycerol lipase-α in metabotropic glutamate receptor-dependent endocannabinoid mobilization

Activation of group I metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors recruits the endocannabinoid system to produce both short- and long-term changes in synaptic strength in many regions of the brain. Although there is evidence that the endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) mediates this process, the molecular mechanism underlying 2-AG mobilization remains unclear. In the present study, we used a combination of genetic and targeted lipidomic approaches to investigate the role of the postsynaptic membrane-associated lipase, diacylglycerol lipase type-α (DGL-α), in mGlu receptor-dependent 2-AG mobilization. DGL-α overexpression in mouse neuroblastoma Neuro-2a cells increased baseline 2-AG levels. This effect was accompanied by enhanced utilization of the 2-AG precursor 1-stearoyl,2-arachidonoyl-sn-glycerol and increased accumulation of the 2-AG breakdown product arachidonic acid. A similar, albeit less marked response was observed with other unsaturated and polyunsaturated monoacylglycerols, 1,2-diacylglycerols, and fatty acids. Silencing of DGL-α by RNA interference elicited lipidomic changes opposite those of DGL-α overexpression and abolished group I mGlu receptor-dependent 2-AG mobilization. Coimmunoprecipitation and site-directed mutagenesis experiments revealed that DGL-α interacts, via a PPxxF domain, with the coiled-coil (CC)-Homer proteins Homer-1b and Homer-2, two components of the molecular scaffold that enables group I mGlu signaling. DGL-α mutants that do not bind Homer maintained their ability to generate 2-AG in intact cells but failed to associate with the plasma membrane. The findings indicate that DGL-α mediates group I mGlu receptor-induced 2-AG mobilization. They further suggest that the interaction of CC-Homer with DGL-α is necessary for appropriate function of this lipase.

Ion mobility derived collision cross sections to support metabolomics applications.

Metabolomics is a rapidly evolving analytical approach in life and health sciences. The structural elucidation of the metabolites of interest remains a major analytical challenge in the metabolomics workflow. Here, we investigate the use of ion mobility as a tool to aid metabolite identification. Ion mobility allows for the measurement of the rotationally averaged collision cross-section (CCS), which gives information about the ionic shape of a molecule in the gas phase. We measured the CCSs of 125 common metabolites using traveling-wave ion mobility-mass spectrometry (TW-IM-MS). CCS measurements were highly reproducible on instruments located in three independent laboratories (RSD < 5% for 99%). We also determined the reproducibility of CCS measurements in various biological matrixes including urine, plasma, platelets, and red blood cells using ultra performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) coupled with TW-IM-MS. The mean RSD was < 2% for 97% of the CCS values, compared to 80% of retention times. Finally, as proof of concept, we used UPLC–TW-IM-MS to compare the cellular metabolome of epithelial and mesenchymal cells, an in vitro model used to study cancer development. Experimentally determined and computationally derived CCS values were used as orthogonal analytical parameters in combination with retention time and accurate mass information to confirm the identity of key metabolites potentially involved in cancer. Thus, our results indicate that adding CCS data to searchable databases and to routine metabolomics workflows will increase the identification confidence compared to traditional analytical approaches.

Deficient Liver Biosynthesis of Docosahexaenoic Acid Correlates with Cognitive Impairment in Alzheimer's Disease

Reduced brain levels of docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6n-3), a neurotrophic and neuroprotective fatty acid, may contribute to cognitive decline in Alzheimers disease. Here, we investigated whether the liver enzyme system that provides docosahexaenoic acid to the brain is dysfunctional in this disease. Docosahexaenoic acid levels were reduced in temporal cortex, mid-frontal cortex and cerebellum of subjects with Alzheimers disease, compared to control subjects (P = 0.007). Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE) scores positively correlated with docosahexaenoic/α-linolenic ratios in temporal cortex (P = 0.005) and mid-frontal cortex (P = 0.018), but not cerebellum. Similarly, liver docosahexaenoic acid content was lower in Alzheimers disease patients than control subjects (P = 0.011). Liver docosahexaenoic/α-linolenic ratios correlated positively with MMSE scores (r = 0.78; P<0.0001), and negatively with global deterioration scale grades (P = 0.013). Docosahexaenoic acid precursors, including tetracosahexaenoic acid (C24:6n-3), were elevated in liver of Alzheimers disease patients (P = 0.041), whereas expression of peroxisomal d-bifunctional protein, which catalyzes the conversion of tetracosahexaenoic acid into docosahexaenoic acid, was reduced (P = 0.048). Other genes involved in docosahexaenoic acid metabolism were not affected. The results indicate that a deficit in d-bifunctional protein activity impairs docosahexaenoic acid biosynthesis in liver of Alzheimers disease patients, lessening the flux of this neuroprotective fatty acid to the brain.