Glenn M. Shea

The Dangers of Life in the City: Patterns of Activity, Injury and Mortality in Suburban Lizards (Tiliqua scincoides)

Abstract Human activities affect animal populations whenever animals and humans live in close proximity, but patterns of mortality in urban wildlife remain poorly known. We analyzed rates of injury and mortality of bluetongue lizards (Tiliqua scincoides) in Sydney, Australia, using a Wildlife Information and Rescue Service database that contained more than 2000 reported “rescues” of this species over a three-year period. Motor vehicles and dogs killed many adult lizards in springtime (the mating season) when adult males move about more frequently. Domestic cats killed mainly juvenile lizards, especially just after parturition in midsummer. Weather conditions affected rescue rates, presumably because lizards were more active on hot dry days. Habitat loss was the most important cause for lizard rescue in highly urbanized areas, whereas domestic pets were a major threat in outlying suburbs. Such datasets are subject to many biases but allow meaningful comparisons at some levels of analysis. The large datasets of wildlife rescue groups have considerable potential to illuminate the nature and frequency of interactions between humans and wildlife.

The ecology of an Australian reptile icon: how do blue-tongued lizards (Tiliqua scincoides) survive in suburbia?

Although most species of large reptiles in the Sydney region are now restricted to remnant bushland, the blue-tongued lizard (Tiliqua scincoides) remains abundant. How has this large, slow-moving reptile managed to persist in the suburbs? We implanted radio-transmitters into 17 adult blue-tongued lizards and tracked them for six months (October 1998 to March 1999). Radio-tracked animals utilised 5–17 suburban backyards, but each lizard spent most of its time in a few ‘core’ areas near 2–7 shelter sites. Males had larger home ranges than females (mean of 12700 v. 5100 m 2 ) and moved further between shelter sites. Gravid females (mean home range 1000 m 2 ) were more sedentary. Lizards used corridors of dense vegetation to move between retreat sites, and actively avoided crossing roads. In sunny weather, lizards typically basked close to their overnight shelter for 1–4 h each morning until they obtained body temperatures of approximately 32°C. They maintained high body temperatures while moving about in the afternoon. In combination, the following ecological factors may facilitate persistence of blue-tongued lizards at our suburban study sites. (i) The most important subgroup of the population in terms of conservation are gravid females, which are highly sedentary and, thus, less likely to encounter the dangers of suburbia. (ii) The more ‘expendable’ males move about much more, but mostly in times and places that involve minimal risk from humans and their domestic pets. (iii) Lizards show strong site fidelity, spending up to 70% of their time in ‘safe’ locations; importantly, they avoid roads. (iv) Blue-tongued lizards readily utilise ‘artificial’ shelter sites and the commensal prey species (e.g. snails) found in most gardens. (v) These lizards can grow rapidly, mature early, and produce large litters. Because blue-tongued lizards have a long life span (over 30 years in captivity), populations of adults may persist for many years in the absence of recruitment.

THE REQUIREMENT FOR NATURAL SUNLIGHT TO PREVENT VITAMIN D DEFICIENCY IN IGUANIAN LIZARDS

Abstract To investigate possible causes of embryonic and neonatal mortality in a group of captive Fijian iguanas (Brachylophus fasciatus and Brachylophus vitiensis), the vitamin D status of adults in the colony was compared with that of agamid and iguanid lizards either housed in indoor enclosures under artificial ultraviolet light or exposed to natural sunlight (wild-caught or captive animals housed outdoors). Those under artificial lighting had a significantly lower vitamin D status than those housed exclusively outdoors, whereas the vitamin D status of Fijian iguanas that had received intermittent exposure to natural sunlight was intermediate and not significantly different from that of animals housed exclusively outdoors. However, eggs from some of these Fijian iguanas had substantially lower vitamin D content than eggs from outdoor iguanid and agamid animals. Artificial ultraviolet light, therefore, might not be an adequate substitute for natural sunlight to maintain vitamin D status of lizards. This possible inadequacy may be because either artificial ultraviolet light has a lower intensity of the wavelengths that induce vitamin D than does sunlight or the intensity of the artificial lighting is not sufficient.

Reproductive Seasonality of Three Cold-Temperate Viviparous Skinks from Southeastern Australia

Abstract Reproductive cycles and patterns of sperm storage were examined for three regionally sympatric species of cold-temperate viviparous Australian skinks previously reported to have Type II reproductive cycles (autumn spermatogenesis and mating, with oviductal sperm storage (OSS) and spring ovulation). Histological examination of oviducts, testes and epididymides of winter- and spring-collected skinks were combined with data on monthly variation in gonad size (ovarian follicle diameter and testis length) obtained from museum specimens. Pseudemoia entrecasteauxii exhibited autumn spermatogenesis and mating, OSS over winter, and spring vitellogenesis and ovulation, concurring with previous studies for more southern populations. In contrast to previous studies from more southern populations, Niveoscincus coventryi and Hemiergis decresiensis displayed autumn spermatogenesis with epididymal sperm storage (ESS) over winter and spring vitellogenesis, mating and ovulation. Timing of mating and sperm storage patterns may vary geographically or possibly be plastic in response to local or annual variation in environmental factors. Autumn-onset vitellogenesis with OSS is hypothesized to be the optimal cycle for producing offspring earlier in the breeding season.

Morphological Observations on the Erythrocytes, Leukocytes and Thrombocytes of Blue Tongue Lizards (Lacertilia: Scincidae, Tiliqua)

Blood cell appearances and sizes varied little between T. scincoides and T. rugosa. Both mature and immature erythrocytes were present in circulating blood. They were oval and, ultrastructurally, had prominent marginal microtubules. Thrombocytes were oval and often showed vacuolation. On TEM examination they had parallel arrays of microtubules and scattered dense granules. Lymphocytes were small and sometimes difficult to distinguish from thrombocytes. Ultrastructurally, they had few organelles in their cytoplasm. Monocytes were commonly packed with fine azurophilic granules which, ultrastructurally, corresponded to variably‐shaped dense granules. Type I granulocytes had eccentric, irregularly shaped nuclei, and cytoplasm which contained many orange‐brown oval to round granules. Ultrastructurally, the granules were membrane bound, dense, and round to elongate oval. Type II granulocytes had eccentric, oval to round nuclei and numerous purple red, round to irregularly oval granules. On TEM examination the granules were commonly large, light grey and reticulate, and often contained a variably sized fibrillar rod. Type III granulocytes had a centrally located nucleus and numerous round, purple blue granules. The granules were round and homogeneously dense at the ultrastructural level.

From Sphenomorphus to Lipinia: Generic Reassignment of Two Poorly Known New Guinea Skinks

Abstract Lygosoma nototaenia Boulenger, 1914, and Lygosoma albodorsale Vogt, 1932, previously placed in the genus Sphenomorphus, are redescribed from the three known specimens of each (including two new specimens of the latter species) and transferred to the genus Lipinia. The phenotypically similar genus Scincella is distinguished from Lipinia by an apomorphic feature of the secondary temporal scales. A novel phalangeal condition, shortening of the third phalanx of the fourth toe, is identified in Lipinia cheesmanae and Lipinia longiceps.

A new character within the taxonomically difficult Sphenomorphus group of lygosomine skinks, with a description of a new species from New Guinea

Abstract The postsupraocular, a small oblique scale just posterior to the supraoculars and medial to the pretemporal scales, is a derived character within the taxonomically difficult Sphenomorphus group of lygosomine skinks. This character occurs in 22 of the approximately 125 described species of Sphenomorphus currently recognized. The species with this distinctive character occur in the southern Philippine Islands, New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands and are called, informally, the Sphenomorphus maindroni group. A new species in the group is described from New Guinea, where most of the species occur. A key to the species with the distinctive character is provided.

Spermatogenic Cycle, Sperm Storage, and Sertoli Cell Size in a Scolecophidian (Ramphotyphlops nigrescens) from Australia

-Spermatogenesis in the southern Australian blindsnake Ramphotyphlops nigrescens is seasonal, with sperm production peaking in autumn, reduced in spring, and testicular recrudescence occurring from late spring to summer. Sperm is present in the epididymides from autumn to early summer. The retrocloacal sacs in this species do not function as sperm storage organs, contradicting the only previous hypothesis on the function of these structures. A peculiar feature of the testes of this species is the large size of the Sertoli cell nuclei, which are much larger than the spermatogenic cells. al of Herpetology, Vol. 35, No. 1, pp. 85-91, 2001 i ht 2001 Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles atogenic Cycle, Sperm Storage, and Sertoli Cell Size in a hidian (Ramphotyphlops nigrescens) from Australia Scolecophidians are anatomically quite different from other snakes in a number of ways. Many of these modifications appear to be related to their burrowing lifestyle, along with a long independent history from the Alethinophidia (Robb, 1960; Robb and Smith, 1966; McDowell, 1974, 1987; Rage, 1987). In particular, the urogenital system shows peculiarities, at varying levels of generality among the families and genera. Among these are the presence of a median cloacal gland in typhlopids and leptotyphlopids (Robb, 1960, 1966a; Gabe and Saint-Girons, 1965; Fox, 1965), parthenogenesis in at least one typhlopid species (McDowell, 1974; Wynn et al., 1987; Ota et al., 1991), loss of the left oviduct in typhlopids and leptotyphlopids (Robb, 1960; Fox and Dessauer, 1962) and some anomalepids (Robb and Smith, 1966); and, in males, the segmented testes of typhlopids and leptotyphlopids (Fox, 1965) and the arrangement of mitochondria on the mature spermatozoon (Harding et al., 1995); and, in the Australopapuan typhlopid genera Acutotyphlops and Ramphotyphlops, a unique hemipeneal structure and the presence of retrocloacal sacs (Robb, 1960, 1966a,b; McDowell, 1974; Wallach, 1993, 1995). The retrocloacal sacs are unique and have been tentatively interpreted as sperm storage organs, although direct evidence for this is lacking (Robb, 1966b). idians are anatomically quite differother snakes in a number of ways. these modifications ap ear to be relateir burrowing lifestyle, along with a i ependent history from the Alethinophi( b, 1960; Rob and Smith, 1966; McDow4, 1987; Rage, 1987). In particular, the ital system shows peculiarit es, at varyels of generality among the families and . ong these are the presence of a mel acal gland in typhlopids and lepto yph( obb, 1960, 196 a; Gabe and Saint-Gi, 965; Fox, 1965), parthenogenesi in at In contrast to the attention paid to scolecophidian anatomy, there are few publications on ecology (Shine and Webb, 1990), especially the male reproductive cycle, for which there are only fragmentary data (Fox, 1965). This paper reports the first data on seasonality of the male gonadal cycle for an Australian typhlopid, Ramphotyphlops nigrescens (Gray, 1845), explores the possible function of the retrocloacal sacs in this species, and reports another unusual feature of the male genital system, the presence of large nuclei in the Sertoli cells of the seminiferous tu-

History of Discovery of the New Zealand Lizard Fauna

Knowledge of the New Zealand lizards began with the arrival of the Māori in the thirteenth century, who largely applied their ancestral Polynesian names and attitudes to lizards. These relied heavily on mythology and folklore. The first European discoverers in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries noted the presence of lizards without providing any further detail, and it was not until the 1820s that the first specimens were collected and the 1830s when these were formally named. The 1840s saw three scientific expeditions visiting the country: the French aboard the Astrolabe and Zelee (1840), the United States Exploring Expedition (1840) and the English Antarctic Expedition aboard the Erebus and Terror (1841). Together with the first major wave of settlement by the New Zealand Company, and by the French at Akaroa, significant herpetological collections began to arrive in museums in Europe and America, and many of the common New Zealand lizards were described, particularly by John Gray at the British Museum, Constant Dumeril and Gabriel Bibron at the Museum national d’Histoire naturelle in Paris, and Charles Girard in Washington. This era ended in the 1860s with the Austrian Novara Expedition and a late flurry of descriptions by others. The formation of the New Zealand Institute in the late 1860s provided the opportunity for local naturalists to describe the fauna they collected, and Walter Buller, Frederick Hutton and William Colenso, in particular, began to describe new species. By the 1880s, when George Boulenger at the British Museum published his syntheses of the world’s herpetofauna, a basic framework of local lizard diversity had emerged. After half a century during which little taxonomic work was done, a monograph of the local lizard fauna by Charles McCann provided the next platform for research and was followed by the burgeoning of field-based ecological studies. New revisions of the skink fauna began in the 1970s, with contributions by Joan Robb, Brian Gill, Graeme Hardy and Geoff Patterson, and emphasised the application of modern genetic techniques to field-based studies of different morphotypes, gradually refining previous concepts. Recent taxonomic study of the gecko fauna has progressed at a slower rate, with many species still to be formally described.

Morphology and natural history of the Land Mullet Egernia major (Squamata: Scincidae)

The external morphology and osteology of the Land Mullet Egernia major is described based on ail available material in Australian museum collections and extant type material. The complex nomenclatural history of this species is discussed. Multivariate analysis of variation in external morphology does not identify any segment of the geographic distribution as distinct, although there is some clinal variation. Available data do not provide evidence for a close relationship with any other Egernia species and the previously identified “Egernia major” species group is concluded to have no morphological support. Litter sizes of 3-7 are recorded and reproduction is vernal. The species is omnivorous, with a high frequency of fungi and nocturnal invertebrates in the stomach contents.