Glenn S. Sanders

Distraction and social comparison as mediators of social facilitation effects

Abstract Sanders and Baron (Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1975, 32, 956–963) suggested that increases in drive produced by the presence of others (social facilitation) are due to the tendency for others to distract task performers as they worked on a task. This Distraction-Conflict theory proposes that socially mediated drive induction will occur whenever there is some reason to shift attention from the task to the social stimuli. In the case of humans, one such reason may be the opportunity to obtain social comparison information from an audience or coactors. The present research demonstrated that social facilitation effects (improved simple task performance and impaired complex task performance produced by the presence of others) occurred only when subjects were motivated to obtain comparison information (Experiment I) and when comparison information was available (Experiment II). The availability of comparison information also led to increased accuracy in estimating the coactors performance. This indicated that in conditions manifesting social facilitation, subjects were spending some time monitoring the coactors work, which is an inherently distracting activity. Several supplementary measures of distraction were generally consistent in indicating greater distraction under conditions manifesting social facilitation. The present results offer no support for the explanations of social facilitation suggested by Zajonc and by Cottrell.

Driven by distraction: An integrative review of social facilitation theory and research

Abstract Social facilitation refers to the enhancement of an organisms dominant responses by the simple physical presence of species-mates, independent of any informational or interactional influences the others may exert. This phenomenon represents the consequences of the most elementary transition from a nonsocial to a social environment, and is one of the first research areas in experimental social psychology. The present analysis examines the status of three different explanations for socially facilitated behavior. Substantial weaknesses exist in the propositions that the presence of others elicits a reflexive alertness or preparedness response (Mere Presence) and that the presence of others increases drive through classically conditioned anticipations of positive and negative outcomes (Learned Drive). A third proposition argues for increased drive due to response conflict involving incompatible tendencies to attend to others and to ongoing task requirements (Distraction/Conflict). The basic assumptions of the Distraction/Conflict hypothesis are found to have considerable empirical support, and a wide variety of apparently anamolous results are integrated into the attentional conflict framework. Finally, a synthesis of the three approaches is proposed wherein slightly modified versions of the Mere Presence and Learned Drive theories serve to specify two common antecedents for the arousal of attentional conflict (the Attentional Processes model). Connections between the Attentional Processes model and past and future research are explored.

Type A coronary-prone behavior pattern and social facilitation.

A laboratory study was conducted to investigate the task performance of Type A coronary-prone individuals relative to Type Bs in three types of social situations: alone, with a similarly performing coactor, or with a better-performing coactor. The results indicate that Type As performance on a simple task was facilitated by the presence of either a similar or superior coactor, whereas the presence of coactors impaired performance on a complex task. Type Bs showed weak and nonsignificant facilitation effects that occurred only in the presence of similar coactors. The results are discussed in terms of the Type As concern about evaluation, achievement, and social comparison, and Sanders and Barons distraction-conflict theory of social facilitation.

Selectivity in the Use of Social Comparison Information

Previous research has generally supported Festingers proposal that similar others are preferred sources of comparison information, but has not examined the use to which the information is put. Subjects in the present study took a test and received a score and comparison information from both similar and dissimilar others. A change in the overall central tendency from a baseline value produced a significant shift in ability estimates only if the change involved the scores of similar others. Thus, selectivity in the desire for information extends to the use of that information for self-evaluation.

Self-presentation and drive in social facilitation

Abstract Social facilitation refers to cases in which the presence of others increases the probability of certain responses on the part of an independently operating individual. Drive theory attributes these effects to an unconscious facilitation of dominant responses, as defined by Hull-Spence learning theory. Self-presentation explanations posit changes in motivation and cognitive strategies that result from an increased concern with favorable private and public images. The present paper reviews evidence and presents an experiment indicating both points of view are valid, but that neither perspective by itself can account for all relevant data.

Behavioral Discrimination Against Women

Male and female college students performed a card-sorting task on which a quota had been set by a male or female engineering student. Fewer cards (p<.02) were sorted for the female than for the male quota-setter, with males evidencing somewhat more discrimination than females.

Some conditions maximizing eyewitness accuracy: A learning/memory analogy

Jurors continue to rely heavily on eyewitness testimony despite numerous demonstrations that it is often inaccurate. As part of the effort to provide jurors with good estimates of the accuracy of any specific testimony, a study was designed to test the proposal that eyewitness accuracy is governed by the same variables and in the same way as is retention of much simpler material in classical learning and memory paradigms. Prior exposure to the criminal (trials), arousal value of the incident (drive), and delay between prior exposure and incident, and between incident and test (inner-trial intervals) all affected eyewitness accuracy in the expected manner. Correct recognitions of the criminal in a line-up ranged from 14 percent to 86 percent, depending on the particular conditions under which the incident was observed.

An integration of shifts toward risk and caution in gambling situations

Abstract Findings have been reported and replicated indicating group-induced caution at the racetrack and group-induced risk in blackjack gambling. The present research examined the effects of two consistent differences between the blackjack and racetrack situations: (a) the amount of money available to groups versus individuals; and (b) the number of bets made in the postbaseline session. It was found that group-induced caution can occur in the blackjack setting if groups have larger stakes than individuals, as was the case in the racetrack studies, and that this effect disappears over trials, due to group versus individual differences established in the previous blackjack studies. Since current explanations of choice shifts cannot account for the observed trial effects, it was suggested that traditional choice-dilemma material, on which these explanations are largely based, be examined for such effects. Implications of the possible outcomes of such an examination for current group polarization theory were discussed.

No blind schizophrenics: Are NMDA-receptor dynamics involved?

Numerous searches have failed to identify a single co-occurrence of total blindness and schizophrenia. Evidence that blindness causes loss of certain NMDA-receptor functions is balanced by reports of compensatory gains. Connections between visual and anterior cingulate NMDA-receptor systems may help to explain how blindness could protect against schizophrenia.

Social Comparison, Competition and Marriage.

Several views have been expressed concerning reactions of marital partners to how well they compare with each other in competitive situations. Intimacy may make performance comparisons particularly salient so that spouses react strongly to competitive outcomes. On the other hand, marital partners may suppress the implications of performance comparisons in the interests of maintaining a sense of unity. The present study recruited married couples through newspaper ads and had them compete on a test of mental flexibility. Husbands and wives were randomly determined to be winners and losers in the competition. Evaluations of task, situation, and ability were significantly affected by competitive outcome. Furthermore, spouses reacted as strongly to competition with each other as they did to competition with a stranger. Females were more affected by competitive outcome than were males, and this was particularly true of intramarital competition. The effect of individual differences on these results was explored. Overall, it appears that spouses can be affected substantially by intramarital comparison and competition, indicating that these forces may have a disruptive effect on the sense of unity produced by intimacy.