Glynis M. Breakwell

The Distinctiveness Principle: Identity, Meaning, and the Bounds of Cultural Relativity

Extending theories of distinctiveness motivation in identity (Breakwell, 1987; Brewer, 1991; Snyder & Fromkin, 1980), we discuss the precise role of distinctiveness in identity processes and the cross-cultural generality of the distinctiveness principle. We argue that (a) within Western cultures, distinctiveness is necessaryfor the construction of meaning within identity, and (b) the distinctiveness principle is not incompatible with non-Western cultural systems. We propose a distinction among three sources of distinctiveness: position, difference, and separateness, with different implications for identity and behavior. These sources coexist within cultures, on both individual and group levels of selfrepresentation, but they may be emphasized differently according to culture and context.

Mental models and social representations of hazards: the significance of identity processes

This article examines the social influence processes that underpin the development of individual mental models of hazards and analyses the role that identity processes play in determining the nature and plasticity of the representations of risk that an individual will employ. It outlines the nature of the mental models approach (Morgan, Fischhoff, Bostrom and Atman, in press) to developing interventions in risk communication. It describes how social representations theory (Moscovici, 1988) can be used to account for the genesis and maintenance of a mental model of a hazard. In doing so, it is argued that mental models of hazards are social constructions, serving identifiable social purposes for the subculture in which they are elaborated, and that they are generally shared by the members of that subculture. However, within a group or subculture, there will be some individual variation in access to and use of a mental model of a hazard. It is suggested here that these variations are largely predictable on the basis of identity processes (Breakwell, in press). The implications of this analysis for risk communication strategies is explored.

Evaluating Models of Identity Motivation: Self-Esteem is Not the Whole Story

We tested the importance of motivational principles of maintaining self-esteem, distinctiveness, continuity and efficacy (Breakwell, 1993), as well as feelings of purpose and closeness to others, in shaping the perceived centrality of multiple elements of identity among Anglican parish priests. Participants (N = 149) generated identity elements and rated them for perceived centrality and satisfaction of each principle. Comparing multilevel regression models, satisfaction of the self-esteem principle predicted an estimated 32.5%, the four predictors of Breakwells model 49.7%, and all six predictors 54.6% of the variance within participants in perceived centrality of the identity elements (all p < .001). We argue that distinctiveness, continuity, and efficacy should be given equal theoretical consideration to self-esteem as motives guiding identity processes (cf. Abrams & Hogg, 1988; Brewer, 1991; Deaux, 1993; Sedikides & Strube, 1997).

The social amplification of risk and the hazard sequence: the October 1995 oral contraceptive pill scare

Hazard notifications routinely occur as part of the identification or management of a hazard. It is argued that a series of such notifications – a hazard sequence – may affect public responses to future notifications about that hazard and also that hazard sequences can help explain patterns of risk amplification, particularly how a risk becomes normalised. Exploration of the hazard sequence also means exploring hazard templates: frameworks through which people make sense of risk information across the lifetime of the hazard. Events surrounding the 1995 oral contraceptive ‘pill scare’ are used to illustrate the way in which a hazard sequence might operate.

Relating risk experience, venturesomeness and risk perception

The relationship between venturesomeness, past personal experience of specific hazards and perceived characteristics of certain voluntary and involuntary hazardous activities was examined using data from a postal survey of 102 English nonstudent adults. Risk perception was related to both venturesomeness and past risk experiences but the nature of the relationship depended on whether the hazardous activity was voluntary or involuntary. Involuntary risks were more likely to be perceived as more unfamiliar, uncontrollable and involuntary by those who had greater personal experience of hazardous activities. Voluntary risks were more likely to be regarded as better understood and perceived to be assumed as a matter of choice by those who had greater personal experience of hazardous activities. Whilst no significant relationship was established between venturesomeness and perception of voluntary risk activities, it was related to perception of involuntary hazardous activities. High venturesomeness was associated with perceiving involuntary risk activities as having delayed effects and being unfamiliar.

Identity Process Theory : Identity, Social Action and Social Change

We live in an ever-changing social world, which constantly demands adjustment to our identities and actions. Advances in science, technology and medicine, political upheaval, and economic development are just some examples of social change that can impact upon how we live our lives, how we view ourselves and each other, and how we communicate. Three decades after its first appearance, identity process theory remains a vibrant and useful integrative framework in which identity, social action and social change can be collectively examined. This book presents some of the key developments in this area. In eighteen chapters by world-renowned social psychologists, the reader is introduced to the major social psychological debates about the construction and protection of identity in face of social change. Contributors address a wide range of contemporary topics - national identity, risk, prejudice, intractable conflict and ageing - which are examined from the perspective of identity process theory.

Leadership in education: the case of Vice‐Chancellors

This paper is based on the Franklin Lecture given at the Guild of Educators on 17 November 2005 at the Bakers’ Hall, London.

The relationship of self-esteem and attributional style to young peoples worries

Abstract In this study, we developed a simple measure of worriedness for use with teenage and adult samples. Existing measures of anxiety have been primarily concerned with clinical diagnosis, and little research has been conducted into the relationship between general levels of worriedness and specific worries about external/natural and sociopolitical events. We showed that levels of worry are related to levels of self-esteem and to the individuals attributional style. We also showed, however, that concerns and worries about certain external events are related to political world views, as Cotgrove (1982) predicted, and they had implications for levels of political activity among the 13- to 18-year-old British teenagers that we sampled.

Genetic testing and the relationship between specific and general self-efficacy

The study examined the extent to which variations in health-specific self-efficacy could affect general self-efficacy. In a repeated measures design, 300 participants were administered an efficacy questionnaire, before and after an alleged news report, aimed at increasing or decreasing self-efficacy over genetic-testing decision making. The results found that self-efficacy over testing was significantly reduced after reading the negative news report in those participants who felt personal efficacy over testing decisions was important. Levels of general self-efficacy were also significantly decreased. The findings suggest that being denied control over a specific area of self-efficacy can have a wider impact, with a lack of perceived efficacy over testing decision making adversely impacting on levels of general well-being. The wider implications of this generalization effect and the processes involved in efficacy generalization are discussed.

Self‐concept, enterprise and educational attainment in late adolescence

Abstract This study used data obtained from a large random sample of 16‐19 year olds in four areas in U.K. and from a smaller university student sample to construct an easy‐to‐use measure of purposefulness, a characteristic lying at the core of the concept of enterprise, and to examine the relationship between purposefulness and educational attainment. This instrument was found to be reasonably valid and reliable for both samples. Further, for women, purposefulness was positively related to educational attainment whilst for men this was not the case. The implications of this study are threefold: conceptualising enterprise in terms of a persons motivational, attributional and behavioural style has implications both for the content of, and expectations from, enterprise education and training. Second, the difference in the relationship between educational attainment and purposefulness for the two sexes suggests that there may be different opportunities that the educational system and the labour market offer...