Gordon D. Baxter

Socio-technical systems: From design methods to systems engineering

It is widely acknowledged that adopting a socio-technical approach to system development leads to systems that are more acceptable to end users and deliver better value to stakeholders. Despite this, such approaches are not widely practised. We analyse the reasons for this, highlighting some of the problems with the better known socio-technical design methods. Based on this analysis we propose a new pragmatic framework for socio-technical systems engineering (STSE) which builds on the (largely independent) research of groups investigating work design, information systems, computer-supported cooperative work, and cognitive systems engineering. STSE bridges the traditional gap between organisational change and system development using two main types of activity: sensitisation and awareness; and constructive engagement. From the framework, we identify an initial set of interdisciplinary research problems that address how to apply socio-technical approaches in a cost-effective way, and how to facilitate the integration of STSE with existing systems and software engineering approaches.

Supporting cognitive models as users

Cognitive models are computer programs that simulate human performance of cognitive skills. They have been useful to HCI by predicting task times, by assisting users, and by acting as surrogate users. If cognitive models could interact with the same interfaces that users do, the models would be easier to develop and would be easier to apply as interface testers. This approach can be encapsulated as a cognitive model interface management system (CMIMS), which is analogous to and based on a user interface management system (UIMS). We present five case studies using three different UIMSes. These show how models can interact with interfaces using an interaction mechanism that is designed to apply to all interfaces generated within a UIMS. These interaction mechanisms start to support and constrain performance in the same ways that human performance is supported and constrained by interaction. Most existing UIMSes can and should be extended to create CMIMSes, and models can and should use CMIMSes to look at larger and more complex tasks. CMIMSes will help to further exploit the synergy between the disciplines of cognitive modeling and HCI by supporting cognitive models as users.

Using cognitive task analysis to facilitate the integration of decision support systems into the neonatal intensive care unit

OBJECTIVE New medical systems may be rejected by staff because they do not integrate with local practice. An expert system, FLORENCE, is being developed to help staff in a neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) make decisions about ventilator settings when treating babies with respiratory distress syndrome. For FLORENCE to succeed it must be clinically useful and acceptable to staff in the context of local work practices. The aim of this work was to identify those contextual factors that would affect FLORENCEs success. METHODS A cognitive task analysis (CTA) of the NICU was performed. First, work context analysis was used to identify how work is performed in the NICU. Second, the critical decision method (CDM) was used to analyse how staff make decisions about changing the ventilator settings. Third, naturalistic observation of staffs use of the ventilator was performed. RESULTS A. The work context analysis identified the NICUs hierarchical communication structure and the importance of numerous types of record in communication. B. It also identified important ergonomic and practical requirements for designing the displays and positioning the computer. C. The CDM interviews suggested instances where problems can arise if the data used by FLORENCE, which is automatically read, is not manually verified. D. Observation showed that most alarms cleared automatically. When FLORENCE raises an alarm, staff will normally be required to intervene and make a clinical judgement, even if the ventilator settings are not subsequently changed. CONCLUSIONS FLORENCE must not undermine the NICUs hierarchical communication channels (A). The re-design of working practices to incorporate FLORENCE, reinforced through its user interface, must ensure that expert help is called on when appropriate (A). The procedures adopted with FLORENCE should ensure that the data the advice is based upon is valid (C). For example, FLORENCE could prompt staff to manually verify the data before implementing any suggested changes. FLORENCEs audible alarm should be clearly distinguishable from other NICU alarms (D); new procedures should be established to ensure that FLORENCE alarms receive attention (D), and false alarms from FLORENCE should be minimised (B, D). FLORENCE should always provide the data and reasoning underpinning its advice (A, C, D). The methods used in the CTA identified several contextual issues that could affect FLORENCEs acceptance. These issues, which extend beyond FLORENCEs capability to suggest changes to the ventilator settings, are being addressed in the design of the user interface and plans for FLORENCEs subsequent deployment.

Time bands in systems structure

In this chapter we have argued that complex systems exhibit behaviour at many different time levels and that a useful aid in structuring, describing and specifying such behaviour is to use time bands. Viewing a system as a collection of activities within a finite set of bands is an effective means of separating concerns and identifying inconsistencies between different ‘layers’ of the system. Time bands are not mapped on to a single notion of physical time. Within a system there will always be a relation between bands but the bands need not be tightly synchronised. There is always some level of imprecision between any two adjacent bands. Indeed the imprecision may be large in social systems and be a source of dependability (robustness).

Foundations for Designing User-Centered Systems

If designers and developers want to design better technologies that are intended for human use they need to have a good understanding of the people who are or who will be using their systems. Understanding people, their characteristics, capabilities, commonalities, and differences allows designers to create more effective, safer, efficient, and enjoyable systems. This book provides readers with resources for thinking about people—commonly called ‘‘users’’—their tasks and the context in which they perform those tasks. Our intention is to enable you to make more informed decisions when designing complex interactive systems. This chapter thus introduces this argument through example design problems. We then present the benefits and costs associated with understanding the user. Two approaches for understanding users are introduced. The first is a framework called the ABCS for understanding, in broad strokes, different aspects of users. The second is user knowledge and action simulation for developing and testing how users approach tasks in more detail. After reading this chapter you should be able to appreciate why it is important to understand users, and the associated benefits and costs of doing so.

The ironies of automation: still going strong at 30?

Motivation -- Bainbridge highlighted some of the ironies of automation 30 years ago and identified possible solutions. Society is now highly dependent on complex technological systems, so we assess our performance in addressing the ironies in these systems. Research approach -- A critical reflection on the original ironies of automation, followed by a review of three domains where technology plays a critical role using case studies to identify where ironies persist. Findings/Design -- The reliability and speed of technology have improved, but the ironies are still there. New ironies have developed too, in cloud computing where the cheaper cost of computing resources can lead to systems that are less dependable when developers bypass company procedures. Research limitations/Implications -- The work relies on published or reported cases. This makes it difficult to precisely determine how widespread the issues are. Originality/Value -- The research re-iterates the importance of the need to regularly consider the ironies of automation in systems development so that we can mitigate against any potential adverse consequences. Take away message -- The more we depend on technology and push it to its limits, the more we need highly-skilled, well-trained, well-practised people to make systems resilient, acting as the last line of defence against the failures that will inevitably occur.

User-Centered Systems Design: A Brief History

The intention of this book is to help you think about design from a user-centered perspective. Our aim is to help you understand what questions to ask when designing a technology or a system or when you are evaluating a design that already exists. We focus on physiological, cognitive, and social aspects of the human user, aspects that will affect how someone will use what you design. This chapter introduces some historical background to the field of User Centered System Design, and introduces current themes.

Human error revisited: some lessons for situation awareness

Situation awareness (SA) has received increasing exposure over the last decade. However, a universally accepted definition of SA has yet to emerge. This means that there is no clear exposition of the relative importance of the different aspects of SA and of which aspects require further investigation. Similar problems have been previously solved by human error researchers. By reflecting on the solutions to those problems, several lessons have been identified to help frame future SA research. These lessons suggest that all types of behaviour and performance need to be considered. The distinction between the manifestations and causes of the inevitable breakdowns in SA has to be clarified so that SA can be managed effectively. The concept of SA also has to account for all the contextual factors that affect it. Failure to heed these lessons could cause SA researchers to revisit problems that have already been solved.

Promoting public awareness of the links between lifestyle and cancer: A controlled study of the usability of health information leaflets

OBJECTIVES To develop health information leaflets for people aged 18-30 about the links between lifestyle and cancer. To devise a lightweight method for evaluating the usability of health information leaflets. To evaluate the usability of leaflets, particularly their effectiveness, in raising awareness about the links between lifestyle and cancer. METHODS A combination of methods was used. A focus group, questionnaires and semi-structured interviews were carried out with members of the public, healthcare practitioners and design professionals to collect requirements for the design of healthcare information leaflets. Two leaflets were developed and evaluated using questionnaires and surveys, using a standard leaflet as the control. RESULTS/FINDINGS All leaflets increased awareness of the links between lifestyle and cancer and most of this information was retained over a 2-week gap. Participants preferred the leaflet that had a design that was radically different from standard leaflets. CONCLUSIONS Design guidelines for health information leaflets need to focus on their usability (particularly attractiveness and effectiveness) as well as their legibility and comprehensibility. The attractiveness and effectiveness can be measured using simple usability surveys and awareness tests.

MOOCs with attitudes: Insights from a practitioner based investigation

In the current educational landscape of shrinking public budgets and increasing costs, MOOCs have become one of the most dominant discourses in higher education (HE). However, due to their short history, they are only just beginning to be systematically investigated. In an attempt to shed more light on the MOOC phenomenon, this study complements other approaches by eliciting institutional attitudes to MOOC provision using qualitative content analysis on responses captured in a series of semi-structured interviews with participants who hold senior positions in universities and who are involved in creating institutional policy and/or the design and delivery of MOOCs. A context for these interviews was created by looking at MOOCs from historical, pedagogical, monetary and technological perspectives. Five topics emerged that were subsequently used as common points of reference for comparisons across the interviews: motivation, monetization, pedagogy, traditional universities and public access to higher education. The analysis of attitudes to, and the importance of, these topics are summarized, and also illustrated through quotes from the participants. Interestingly, it does not appear that MOOCs are regarded by insiders as disruptive as the media presents them, but rather are seen primarily as marketing vehicles for global education brands.