Grace B. Villamor

Social Role-Play Games Vs Individual Perceptions of Conservation and PES Agreements for Maintaining Rubber Agroforests in Jambi (Sumatra), Indonesia

Financial incentives can both support and undermine social norms compatible with environmental service enhancement. External co-investment—e.g., through incentives from programs to reduce emissions from deforestation and degradation (REDD) and eco-certification—needs to synergize with local efforts by understanding local dynamics and conditions for free and prior informed consent. We assessed the perceptions and behavior of rubber agroforest farmers under existing conservation agreements as a step toward institutionalized reward schemes for agro-biodiversity using questionnaires and role- playing games (RPG). To our knowledge, this is the first attempt to apply such a combination of methods to explore the perceptions of payments for environmental services (PES). Results revealed a strong conservation belief system and social norms in the research site, with indications that individual interest in converting old rubber agroforest to oil palm, with consequent private gain and loss of local social agro- biodiversity benefits, is suppressed in the social context of a role-playing game. In the game, all financial bids by external agents to secure an oil palm foothold in the village, were rejected despite indications of declining income in the village. Agents promoting an eco-certification scheme in the RPG had success and the responses obtained in the game can assist in the actual rollout of such a scheme without creating unrealistic expectations of its financial benefits. Co-investment schemes that require higher levels of trust and clarity of performance measures will have to address the potential discrepancy between individual preferences and community-level planning and decisions, while recognizing that social norms color the responses of individuals when presented with alternatives.

Stewardship agreement to Reduce Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD): case study from Lubuk Beringin's Hutan Desa, Jambi Province, Sumatra, Indonesia

SUMMARY Contested rules between the state and local communities over use and protection of forest affect environmental services and livelihood options in Indonesias forest margins. Success in forest protection and emission reduction (REDD) requires conflict resolution. The recent village forest (Hutan Desa) regulation by the Minister of Forestry (P.49/Menhut-II/2008) details how to reconcile forest management targets and livelihood interests of forest-edge villages within the framework of a permanent forest estate. Lubuk Beringin in Bungo District, Jambi Province became the first village in Indonesia to secure such an agreement. Our analysis of process, stakes and social capital bridging local, district and national scales of Hutan Desa aims to assist in reducing transaction costs for wider application. Streamlining of rules is needed to make Hutan Desa a viable part of REDD schemes at relevant scale, and to support locally appropriate mitigation action as part of national strategies, and as co-investment in stewardship for local, national and global benefits.

Agroforest’s growing role in reducing carbon losses from Jambi (Sumatra), Indonesia

Abstract This paper examines the size and intensity of changes among five land categories during the two time intervals in a region of Indonesia that is pioneering negotiations concerning reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD). Maps at 1973, 1993, and 2005 indicate that land-cover change is accelerating, while carbon loss is decelerating in Jambi Province, Sumatra. Land dynamics have shifted from Forest loss during 1973–1993 to Agroforest loss during 1993–2005. Forest losses account for most reductions in aboveground carbon during the both time intervals, but Agroforest plays an increasingly important role in carbon reductions during the more recent interval. These results provide motivation for future REDD policies to count carbon changes associated with all influential land categories, such as Agroforests.

Diversity deficits in modelled landscape mosaics

Abstract We outline several diversity factors that modellers and models can include directly or indirectly in order to improve the accuracy and usefulness of the model. Without considering these factors, different types of diversity deficit can arise. These deficits can be considered in three domains: 1) in the real world where actual diversity is less than a potential state that is deemed desirable (hence we worry about loss of biodiversity and cultural diversity); 2) in modelling of the real world (where ‘residual variance’ may represent a diversity deficit of the model); and 3) in our recognition of the driving forces that are used to construct a model (a diversity deficit due to oversimplification). The goal of this review is to use these three domains of diversity deficit to evaluate existing models, with a longer term goal of creating a more robust framework for assessing landscape models in the future. To that end, we evaluate the behaviour characteristics and routines of agents in some current models. We also address one of the fundamental challenges to modelling diversity, which is the integration of non-economic motivations in the decision making of human agents.

Gender influences decisions to change land use practices in the tropical forest margins of Jambi, Indonesia.

This study explores the role of gender as a factor in decision making about alternative land use options and in responses to new investment opportunities, which has received little attention to date. An observational study to determine the different factors affecting male and female decisions to change land use at the individual level in a forest margin landscape in Jambi (Sumatra, Indonesia) was combined with a set of role playing games (RPGs) designed to assess participant responses in a simulated social setting of women-only and men-only groups. The RPG included simulated agents offering new opportunities to convert or conserve agroforest. In the study area, rubber (Hevea braziliensis) agroforests that support high biodiversity and carbon storage are giving way to monoculture rubber and oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) plantations. When women from both the upland and lowland villages played the RPGs, external investors proposing logging or oil palm conversion were approached very positively and the resulting land use change was more dynamic and extensive than in the equivalent men-only groups. Consequently, women outperformed men in achieving income targets. In lowland areas gender is strongly associated with land use change, while in the uplands the level of conservation awareness plays a more crucial role in the maintenance of rubber agroforests. Based on the data, and contrary to expectations and gender stereotypes, it is expected that the greater involvement of women in landscape level decision making will increase emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in the area, posing further challenges to efforts to reduce such emissions.

Human Decision Making In Empirical Agent-Based Models: Pitfalls And Caveats For Land-Use Change Policies.

This paper describes three fundamental pitfalls or caveats of empirical modeling of land-use decision making in agent-based models for land-use/cover change. A case study in the villages of Jambi Province (Sumatra), Indonesia, is presented to demonstrate the construction of empirical decision-making models using utility functions while taking into account these caveats. Incorporating the decision process as an option to deal with the drawbacks of cross-sectional data is recommended to better specify agents’ behavior in the decision-making models.

Market-based instruments for risk-averse farmers: rubber agroforest conservation in Jambi Province, Indonesia

This paper investigates the effectiveness of different market-based instruments (MBIs), such as eco-certification premiums, carbon payments, Pigovian taxes and their combination, to address the conversion of agroforests to monoculture systems and subsequent effects on incomes of risk-averse farmers under income uncertainty in Indonesia. For these, the authors develop a farm-level dynamic mean-variance model combined with a real options approach. Findings show that the conservation of agroforest is responsive to the risk-aversion level of farmers: the greater the level of risk aversion, the greater is the conserved area of agroforest. However, for all risk-averse farmers, additional incentives in the form of MBIs are still needed to prevent conversion of agroforest over the years, and only the combination of MBIs can achieve this target. Implementing fixed MBIs also contributes to stabilizing farmers’ incomes and reducing income risks. Consequently, the combined MBIs increase incomes and reduce income inequality between hardly and extremely risk-averse farmers.

Farmers’ perceptions of climate change impacts on ecosystem services delivery of parklands in southern Mali

Agroforestry parklands in the Sahel provide a number of ecosystem services that help farmers cope better with climate change effects and thus reducing their vulnerability. However, parklands are threatened due to the decline in densities of species that are sensitive to drought and that might compromise the delivery of the above mentioned ecosystem services to farmers. Therefore, data were collected by interviewing 400 smallholder farmers to elucidate farmers’ perceptions of climate change in southern Mali and potential consequences on the delivery of ecosystem services from the parklands. Descriptive statistics and multinomial logit model were used to analyse the data collected and identify the indictors as well as the determinants of farmers’ perception of climate change. The findings revealed increases in the frequency of strong wind, dust, drought, high temperatures and number of hot days as the main climate change-related indicators. Furthermore, an early cessation of the rainy season, frequent drought and wind were found to be the factors impeding a better delivery of the ecosystem services from the parklands. Early cessation of rains and frequent drought might affect the water availability which in turn affects the flowering and fruiting phases of the trees. The occurrence of strong wind causes the shedding of the flowers thus reducing the fruit production. Age, educational level, farm size and gender are key factors influencing farmer’s perception of climate change. The strategies adopted by these farmers to cope with climate shocks include use of improved drought-tolerant crop varieties, diversification of crops, off-farm activities and seasonal migration. Based on these findings, we therefore suggest the development of conducive environment that can help create agricultural related off-farm income earning activities that could protect active households from the impacts of climate change and variability.

Land use change and shifts in gender roles in central Sumatra, Indonesia

SUMMARY While Indonesia is experiencing a rapid land use transition due to export-oriented growth in agricultural products such as palm oil and natural rubber, there is no clear understanding of how shifts in farming practices influence gender-specific roles and preferences. In a partially matrilineal society on Sumatra where rice production for subsistence purposes, in an agroforestry landscape, is traditionally considered the women’s domain and responsibility, 202 households were surveyed about their perceptions of gender-specific agricultural roles. Over time, rice fields have been converted to oil palm. Lowland women have increasingly significant roles in rubber agroforestry in addition to collecting firewood, medicinal plants and wild fruit for household consumption, whereas men are typically occupied in monoculture oil palm or rubber production. As land use patterns rapidly change, particularly in the lowlands, the responsibility of rubber agroforestry systems is shifting from men to women with consequences for gender division of labour and decision making.

Factors affecting the adoption of agricultural innovation: the case of a Ricinodendron heudelotii kernel extraction machine in southern Cameroon

Abstract Agroforestry is now accepted as a sustainable way of improving existing cropping systems. As with other agricultural innovations, the adoption of agroforestry practices depends on farmers’ perceptions of the benefits that would arise from the use of these practices. Ricinodendron heudelotii (Baill. Pierre ex Pax.) or njansang (in Bassa local language) is a tropical tree, the kernels of which are in high demand in Cameroon as a thickening ingredient. Njansang is suitable for integration in agroforestry systems in the area, but its expansion is constrained by difficulties in kernel extraction, which has been exclusively manual so far. This paper investigates the factors that determine producers’ attitudes towards the introduction and use of a kernel extraction machine. Among the issues investigated were characterization of users, comparison of mechanical and manual extraction, users’ appreciation of the machine and willingness to continue to use the machine. Using a structured questionnaire, 81 njansang producers from three categories were randomly selected from five villages in southern Cameroon. We further investigate how attributes of an innovation influence the adoption of the machine. Results from a principal component analysis and logistic regression suggest that the age and education of producers, annual income from njansang, the number of njansang trees exploited and the purchase price of the machine are important variables in determining its adoption. The use of the machine allows producers to spend less time on njansang kernel extraction, thereby increasing returns in labour and offering opportunities to increase the number of trees a household can exploit.