Graeme Russell

Mother-child and father-child relationships in middle childhood and adolescence : a developmental analysis

Abstract Bases for a developmental approach to the nature and functions of mother-child and father-child relationships are considered in connection with research findings from studies of middle-childhood and adolescent subjects and their parents. The framework for the review was derived from two sources: (1) recent conceptualizations of close relationships and (2) implications in general theories of socialization regarding different contributions of mothers and fathers to development during middle childhood and adolescence. Relationships between offspring and their mothers were found to contrast with father-offspring relationships in both middle childhood and adolescence, and differences appear to become more pronounced in some areas as a function of maturational changes associated with the transition to adolescence. The analysis points to the inadvisability of considering relationships with parents to be monolithic and a-developmental. In addition, it makes clear the need for a developmental theory of relationships to serve as a guide to further research on the linkages between ontogenetic change in individuals and the relationships of which they are a part.

An Australian sex-role scale

Abstract The development of two 50-item parallel forms of an Australian sex-role scale is described. A total of 2,427 subjects rated 512 adjectives in terms of their desirability for Australian males and females, the degree to which they are expected in Australian males and females, and their self-applicability. These ratings were used to construct the two scales — Personal Description Questionnaire Forms A and B. Each scale comprises 10 masculine positive, 10 masculine negative, 10 feminine positive, 10 feminine negative, and 10 social desirability items. The new scales were administered to 282 (144 male, 138 female) high-school students for self-description, and the various psychometric characteristics of the scales and norms for these samples are presented. It is recommended that Australian sex-role researchers use these new scales in preference to past scales based on American college students. As with any new scales there is a need for further normative data to be gathered and a variety of validation...

The changing role of fathers? Current understandings and future directions for research and practice

This paper examines current knowledge and thinking about fathering during the infancy period, in terms of research, practice, and social policy. The analysis is conducted at four levels: (1) Description of fathering in terms of mens feelings about being fathers, their involvement with their children, and the nature of infant interactions; (2) the antecedents of father involvement; (3) the effects that fathering has on child development and on the development of fathers, themselves; (4) the implications of findings for social policies and practices (e.g., for approaches to parent education). A major conclusion of the review is that despite a recent shift to place more emphasis on fathers, there is not as much evidence of fathers having been fully integrated into family research paradigms and theoretical models of family processes.

Coparenting Early School-Age Children: An Examination of Mother-Father Interdependence within Families.

Mothers and fathers within families are assumed to exert mutual influences on each other (i.e., to be interdependent). However, there is little evidence on the nature of this interdependence. Mother-father interdependence was examined in a middle-class, White nonclinic sample in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, consisting of intact families with an early school-age child. Interdependence was investigated in the forms of correlation, similarity, and complementarity for variables in 4 domains of parenting. For individual variables there was a substantial degree of similarity. However, there was considerable diversity and complexity in the pattern of similarity and difference, across variables and for different families. Interdependence appears to take various forms in different families

Assessment of self‐concept in early adolescence

This study investigates the conceptual issues, theoretical rationale, construct validity, psychometric properties, and empirical analysis of the Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents (Harter, 1986). The scale was administered to 283 students (average age 13.1 years, 49% female) from 12 Year 7 classes in three non-selective systemic high schools. The scale assesses competence in 8 self-concept domains: scholastic competence, social acceptance, athletic competence, physical appearance, romantic appeal, conduct/morality, close friendships, job competence and, in addition, global self-worth. Separate items relating to mathematics and English abilities were added. The internal consistencies were generally high. Results from factor analysis provided strong support for the a priori dimensions, the multidimensional conceptualisation of the self-concept, thereby confirming Harters (1985a) model.

Measures of children's sex typing in middle childhood

Abstract Measures of sex-typing suitable for use with 8to 14-year-olds are proposed. They involve interests, toys, sports, household jobs, friends, similarity to peers and personality. The measures fit conceptually into Hustons (1983) framework within the categories “Behavioural enactment or adoption” and “Identity or self-perception”. The sample comprised first and second born children from 191 families (first borns 98 males, 93 females; second borns 95 males, 96 females). They were selected using a stratified random sampling procedure involving area risk scores. The children in 161 families were assessed on a second occasion, on average 16 months after the first testing. The measures were shown to have suitable psychometric properties: sex differences in the expected directions, moderate coefficient alpha values, consistency over time in terms of moderate correlations, and few changes in means. Intercorrelations among the measures revealed little coherence either within each of the two Huston categorie...

The factor structure of the bem sex-role inventory: Method and sample comparisons

This study attempts to resolve the discrepancies between recent factor analytic studies of the Bern Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI). It examines the factor structure of the BSRI as a function of sample type (male students, female students, non-student male, non-student female) and method of analysis (orthogonal versus oblique rotation). Using the maximum likelihood method with an orthogonal (varimax) rotation, few differences were found among the four samples and hence a combined solution reporting the loadings for the first five factors is presented. Variations among the four separate samples are also discussed. The first two factors were found generally to correspond to the masculinity and feminity scales of the BSRI with the next three being labelled Sex, Independence and Negativity respectively. An oblique rotation in the total sample confirmed this basic structure and also supported Bems conception of masculinity and femininity as separate independent dimensions. It is clear, however, that a refinement of the BSRI is necessary and one such possibility is suggested.

The Measurement of Masculinity, Femininity and Androgyny: A Reply to Rowland (1977)

Abstract In a recent article, Rowland has presented proportions of males and females scoring masculine, feminine and androgynous on the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI). Among others, her conclusion that fewer Australian males are masculine sex-typed than their American counterparts is fallacious because of limitations in the design of the study, the analysis and reporting of the data, and the inferences drawn from those results. In the present study the BSRI was administered to first-, second-, and third-year Macquarie University students, postgraduate Master of Business Administration students, and married couples with children. Means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations for the masculinity, femininity, and social desirability scales are reported separately for males and females, together with proportions falling into the 5 Bem sex-role categories and 4 Spence et. al. categories. The generality of the sex-role proportions over the present disparate samples, and their similarity to Bems, highlight t...

Mother, Father, and Child Beliefs about Child Development.

Abstract Beliefs about children and child development of mothers and fathers were compared and those of parents and their 11-year-old children. The beliefs dealt with the degree of influence parents have over development and the importance of given characteristics in children. Mothers (n = 50), fathers (n = 50), and children (25 boys and 25 girls) were interviewed separately. The interview dealt with 22 characteristics of children. Parents and children revealed little agreement. Comparisons between mothers and fathers differed somewhat as a function of the type of analysis. As groups they differed on only 25% of items, suggesting more similarities than differences in the beliefs of mothers and fathers. However, when mothers and fathers within families were compared there was little agreement. More account may need to be taken of the pattern of beliefs and behavior within families and ways families differ in their patterns as well as how mothers and fathers as groups differ.

Why do males and females differ? Children's beliefs about sex differences

The present paper focuses on childrens beliefs about sex differences and how these are related to age and gender. Seven, ten, and fifteen year olds (N=427) were asked to give explanations for their beliefs about sex differences. In strong agreement with previous research and the cognitive-developmental theoretical framework, marked age differences were found: younger children were more likely than older children to emphasize biological and physical factors. Significant gender differences were also found, especially for 15 year olds. Girls were much more likely to attribute sex differences to social factors, and boys to biological factors. These gender differences were interpreted as being indicative of different life experiences of males and females, with females being more likely to have experienced conflicts between their own values about sex-role behavior and those of society. Findings were also interpreted as being consistent with the recent emphasis on gender schema. Nevertheless, it was argued that theories of gender schema need to take more account of content—of the beliefs that people hold about sex roles—and, in particular, that more attention be given to exploring gender differences in beliefs.