Graham Ellison

A Blueprint for Democratic Policing Anywhere in the World? Police Reform, Political Transition, and Conflict Resolution in Northern Ireland

This article provides an overview of the police reform process undertaken in Northern Ireland since 1999 as part of a broader program of conflict resolution. It considers the recommendations of the Independent Commission on Policing (ICP), which proposed a number of changes to policing structures and arrangements in Northern Ireland, and it assesses the degree to which these have been operationalized in the 8 years since the ICP published its report. It suggests that although the police reform process in Northern Ireland has been moderately successful and provides a number of international best practice lessons, the overall pace of change has been hindered by difficulties of implementation and, more fundamentally, by developments in the political sphere and civil society.

Policing, collective action and social movement theory: the case of the Northern Ireland civil rights campaign*

In this paper we examine the relationship between social movements and the police through an analysis of the Civil Rights Movement (CRM) which emerged in the late 1960s in Northern Ireland. Following della Porta (1995) and Melucci (1996) we argue that the way in which episodes of collective action are policed can affect profoundly both levels of mobilization and the orientation of social movements. We also submit that the symbolic and representational dimensions of policing can be a significant trigger in the stimulation of identification processes and collective action. The paper concludes by questioning some of the assumptions contained within social movement theory, and their applicability to divided societies such as Northern Ireland.

From Empire to Iraq and the 'War on Terror': The Transplantation and Commodification of the (Northern) Irish Policing Experience

Charting the enduring export appeal of policing models from (Northern) Ireland, this article sheds some light on the processes by which policing models are communicated and actively promoted to the global policing environment. The authors demonstrate how the transplantation of the Irish colonial model (ICM) represents an early example of the globalization of policing. The legacy of counterinsurgency expertise embedded within the ICM remains a historical constant and is a key factor in relation to the increasing commodification of the contemporary Northern Irish policing model, a model that successfully blends counterterrorism experience with a template for democratic policing reform. By juxtaposing these models, the authors provide a conceptual framework through which to assess the contemporary substance of policing transfer. The authors conclude by suggesting that the seductiveness of these policing models is largely attributable to lessons in counterinsurgency and notions of “Ireland as the solution” to a host of complex security scenarios.

Policing and social conflict in Northern Ireland

In this introduction, we provide a historical account of the development of policing in Northern Ireland. In Section One, we discuss the historical imperatives that shaped the nature of policing in pre‐independence Ireland. In Section Two, we consider the links between police and state in Northern Ireland, and explore the dynamics of policing during the conflict. As police reform emerged as a central plank of the peace process, we examine the potential of the Patten Report to resolve the difficulties surrounding policing and police legitimacy. We conclude by highlighting the positive lessons to emerge from the ongoing debate over police reform in Northern Ireland.

The language of policing and the struggle for legitimacy in Northern Ireland

British government strategies of conflict management in Northern Ireland placed a heavy emphasis on police professionalism, which was itself connected to a broader set of initiatives to frame public understandings of the conflict in particular ways. In this paper we argue that as part of this process, a specific language of policing has been deployed in Northern Ireland in an effort to enhance the legitimacy of the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC). The two central elements of this are ‘consent’ and ‘service’. Using interview and historical data, we outline the various ways in which these concepts are utilised to support claims that the force operates with widespread community support, and has at its core a commitment to service provision. We suggest that these tenets are part of a broader discursive strategy to complement material practices of policing in Northern Ireland. While they articulate a highly positive image of the RUC, they provide limited scope for understanding and responding to criticism of current policing structures and arrangements.

Assessing the Determinants of Public Confidence in the Police: A Case Study of a Post-Conflict Community in Northern Ireland

Drawing upon original survey research this article seeks to identify the generative processes that influence perceptions of the police in the context of an inner-city neighbourhood in Northern Ireland that has been affected by increases in crime and disorder in the aftermath of the peace process. Conceptually we draw upon recent research from England and Wales that outlines confidence in the police in terms of instrumental and expressive dimensions. We apply this framework and consider whether it provides a useful template for understanding the post-conflict dynamics of police–community relations in our study area. Contrary to much received wisdom our analysis suggests that instrumental concerns about crime and illegal activity are a more influential predictor of attitudes to the police than expressive concerns with disorder and anti-social behaviour. Consequently our discussion points to the variance in local and national survey data and questions the degree to which the latter can usefully inform our understanding of trends and developments in discrete micro-spaces. Our conclusion outlines the potential policy implications for state policing practice in deprived urban spaces.

The Dynamics of Male and Female Street Prostitution in Manchester, England

This article examines male street prostitution in Manchester, England, and draws some comparisons to its female counterpart in this city. While the two sectors have some important similarities, we also find significant differences in the physical and social ecology of the places in which they work, in their behavior patterns, and in individuals’ demographics and work experiences. We find that ecological differences between the male and female markets have a major impact on participants’ work practices, opportunities, and integration into the local community. The data also indicate that it is incorrect to speak of a monolithic male street market or sector in Manchester because sellers shift between settings (street, bar, and escorting), unlike the female street sector. We also find that the males demonstrate more diversity in their repertoires for earning money. The findings have implications for local government policy and for outreach workers who work with these populations.

From War to Peace: Informal Restorative Justice and Conflict Transformation in Northern Ireland

In the discussion that follows we provide an overview of the operation of informal justice and ‘punishment violence’ in Northern Ireland which has been a deep-seated a semi-permanent aspect of the violent political conflict and which has persisted well into the transition to peace. Eschewing a mono-causal framework we argue that ‘punishment violence’ can only be explained and hence understood in terms of the organizational dynamics of the various armed groupings; the economic and social deprivation caused by Northern Irelands declining economic base and the economic costs of the conflict and finally by the deficiencies in the provision and nature of public policing. We then turn our attention to restorative justice as a panacea to the problem of ‘punishment violence’ and examine the effectiveness of a number of schemes and initiatives that currently operate in Northern Ireland. Finally, we suggest that the capacity of armed groups to demobilize and demilitarize and embrace non-violent means of dealing with conflict depends to a significant extent on the leadership skills of ex-combatants themselves.

Young People and the Royal Ulster Constabulary: A Survey of Inter-Communal Attitudes

This paper forms part of a broader ESRC‐funded study into the relationship between young people, victimisation and policing in Northern Ireland. The findings reported here suggest that attitudes towards the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) are highly schismatic. The data showed no major differences between the attitudes of nationalists and republicans, suggesting a higher level of intra‐communal antagonism to the RUC that has previously been assumed. Additionally, peoples engagement with the police appears to be based as much on ideological and normative factors, as it is on experiential factors. Overall, these findings suggest that police reforms limited to the enhancement of RUC professionalism may not be sufficient to improve relations between the RUC and the broad Catholic/nationalist community.

‘Ulster Says No’: Regulating the Consumption of Commercial Sex Spaces and Services in Northern Ireland

Commercial forms of sex such as prostitution/sex work, strip clubs and even sex shops have been the subject of much political debate and policy regulation over the last decade or so in the UK and Ireland. These myriad forms of commercial sex and land usage have managed to survive and even thrive in the face of public outcry and regulation. Despite being part of the UK we suggest that Northern Ireland has steered its own regulatory course, whereby the consumption of commercial sexual spaces and services have been the subject of intense moral and legal oversight in ways that are not apparent in other UK regions. Nevertheless, in spite of this we also argue that the context of Northern Ireland may provide some lessons for the ways that religious values and moral reasoning can influence debates on commercial sex elsewhere.