Graham Hassall

Entry into force and then? The Paris agreement and state accountability

ABSTRACT The entry into force of the Paris Agreement on climate change brings expectations that states will be held to account for their commitments. The article elaborates on why this is not a realistic assumption unless a broader multilevel perspective is taken on the nature of accountability regimes for international (legal) agreements. The formal accountability mechanisms of such agreements tend to be weak, and there are no indications that they will be stronger for the recent global goals adopted in the Paris Agreement. Looking beyond only peer review among states, national institutions, direct civil society engagement and internal government processes – while each coming with their own strengths and weaknesses – provide additional accountability pathways that together may do a better job. Scientific enquiry is, however, required to better understand, support and find improved mixtures of, and perhaps to move beyond, these accountability pathways. Policy relevance This perspective provides something of a clarion call for a variety of different types of actors at both global and national levels to engage in ensuring that states keep the promises they made in the Paris Agreement. It particularly highlights the importance of national institutions and civil society to step up to the task in the present world order, where states are reluctant to build strong accountability regimes at the global level.

E-Government in Pacific Island Countries

This chapter explains the purpose of the book, which is to examine the state of e-government in the Pacific Islands, and how information and communication technology is changing the practice of government in the region. It outlines the structure and scope of the book, which covers the Pacific Island countries and territories which are members of the Pacific Community, and provides some background for later chapters by describing the dominant cultural groups (Melanesian, Micronesian and Polynesian) and the role of traditional forms of governance in the Pacific. It also describes the characteristics of Pacific small island developing states and how their geographical and economic environment impacts on their development. The role of telecommunications and the development potential of affordable and reliable telecommunications is also outlined. The concept of e-government, how it is appropriately defined in small island developing states and how Pacific Island countries can benefit from e-government is discussed. Their limited resources and dependence on development partners and international investment are also discussed as factors affecting the adoption of e-government. Finally, some conceptual frameworks that have been found useful in exploring e-government in the small island developing states of the Pacific are outlined: Bekkers and Homberg’s ‘information ecology’ approach; Heeks’ ICT4 2.0 Manifesto; and elements of public policy that can usefully be applied. Factors in the ongoing sustainability of e-government projects, including the role of leadership, are identified along with questions and issues that will be raised in the chapters included in the volume and addressed further in the conclusion.

E-Government and Civil Society: Exploring New Relationships in Pacific SIDs

This chapter examines the extent to which Pacific Island governments are using ICTs to engage with civil society, through the initiation of service provision, or some form of policy dialogue. It finds that whereas moderate progress has been made with the establishment of key websites, in only a few instances have these been designed as “portals” through which the public can link to any government department or agency, or through which these departments can communicate with citizens and civil society organizations online. There has been, on the other hand, considerable growth in government activity on social media sites, which are easy to initiate and manage. More active than government-initiated sites are the social media sites established by individuals, civil society groups, think tanks and academia, for the express purpose of commenting on government policies and activities. Communicative practices between state/civil society/citizenry are still being negotiated, particularly in states where government has traditionally been the voice of authority and government information has been protected by Official Information Acts. Government and civil society alike have to work more collaboratively to maximise citizen engagement in public governance. Whilst such situations do not fit neatly into the ‘transformative’ models of e-Public Services and e-Democracy articulated by the World Bank and the UN, they do constitute a beginning to online interaction between citizen and state.

E-Government Policy Processes at Regional and National Levels in the Pacific: Actors, Institutions and Networks

This chapter explores how policy processes at regional and national levels assist Pacific Island countries (PICs) and their various development partners translate the broader developments and possibilities advocated in global forums into workable solutions for each small states’ unique sets of circumstances. After first identifying and explaining the roles of the actors, institutions and networks engaged in e-government at regional level, it traces regional e-government policy dialogue over the past three decades. The chapter then examines policy processes at national level. Although policy dialogue at regional and national levels is related, it is only at national level that legislative frameworks are established, policies are implemented and major expenditure is incurred. Regional-level policy dialogue identifies needs and assists the coordination of capacity building and development assistance, but the roll-out of e-government in PICs depends to a great extent on the leadership and coordination capacity in individual countries.

E-Government for Development in Pacific Island States: Achievements and Future Directions

E-government can facilitate more efficient, transparent government and better communication between government and citizens; and in this volume we have been exploring the extent to which it has done so in Pacific Island countries. The chapter initially returns to the objectives of the volume and some of the questions posed in Chap. 1. It summarises the key findings of Chaps. 2– 13, accentuating the evidence of critical factors in e-government success that can be identified from these findings. This includes a discussion of the attributes of sustainability that are identified in the various chapters, and the five criteria of sustainability proposed in Chap. 1. The theoretical frameworks used in the study (Heeks ICT4D 2.0 Manifesto, his ‘design-reality gap’ and his work on E-Government for Development, and the ‘information ecology’ construct applied to e-government by Bekkers and Homberg) are revisited, and the extent to which these contribute to the analysis of e-government in the Pacific Islands examined. In the final sections of the chapter the focus shifts to e-government policy processes and the question of how well policy processes have contributed to some of the successful e-government initiatives outlined in various chapters in the book is addressed. The chapter, and the volume, conclude with some final reflections: acknowledging the achievements of PICs in ensuring that the basic technical, legislative, policy and regulatory infrastructure for e-government are in place; noting the challenges they have faced with their small economies, lack of resources, and the tensions created in balancing development with traditional lifestyles and forms of governance; emphasizing the need for PICs to build on their achievements to date by focusing on sustainable interactive e-government services that meet local contexts and needs, and using technology to enhance communication with citizens. The lessons learned in the study are applicable to all countries seeking to benefit from the application of ICT to make government more efficient, inclusive and accountable and enhance good governance.

Global Policies and Initiatives for E-Government in Pacific SIDs

Because the Internet is a world-wide system of intercommunications, significant policy dialogue concerning its organization and functioning takes place at global meetings of governments, technical bodies, business, development agencies, and user groups. This “global architecture” for policy-setting covers both Internet governance and e-government. This chapter focuses on the latter, particularly on the interaction between global agencies and policy dialogue processes with SIDs (Small Island Developing States), more particularly those in the Pacific Islands. While small states, such as those in the Pacific, have not played a large role in decision-making at global level, their sharing of their experience, perspectives, and preferences has contributed to the gradual recognition of their distinct development context. Since Agenda 21, through to the recognition of SIDs as a particular category of developing states in global development assistance frameworks, the challenges of e-government have been given ever-closer consideration. At the current time building e-government capacity and capability in Pacific Island SIDs is shaped by the plan of action flowing from the third SIDs Conference in Apia in 2014 and by the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, a comprehensive set of development goals agreed at the United Nations for the period 2015–2030. Developing the capability of Pacific States has included increasing the extent of their participation in global e-government dialogue processes, as partners in development rather than as recipients only.

Asia–Pacific Constitutional Systems: Index

Acknowledgements Map: the Asia-Pacific region Introduction Part I. Modernity and Nation-States at the Dawn of the Global Era: 1. Traditional states and colonisation 2. The modern constitution 3. Writing the constitution Part II. The Constitution of Modernity: 4. The legislature 5. Representation 6. Head of state 7. Constitutional revision Part III. Democracy and the Rule of Law: 8. Courts and the judiciary 9. The suspension of constitutional power 10. Devolution Conclusion: postmodernity and constitutionalism Appendix: chronology of constitutional events in the Asia Pacific Bibliography Index.

Asia–Pacific Constitutional Systems: Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements Map: the Asia-Pacific region Introduction Part I. Modernity and Nation-States at the Dawn of the Global Era: 1. Traditional states and colonisation 2. The modern constitution 3. Writing the constitution Part II. The Constitution of Modernity: 4. The legislature 5. Representation 6. Head of state 7. Constitutional revision Part III. Democracy and the Rule of Law: 8. Courts and the judiciary 9. The suspension of constitutional power 10. Devolution Conclusion: postmodernity and constitutionalism Appendix: chronology of constitutional events in the Asia Pacific Bibliography Index.

Asia–Pacific Constitutional Systems: Contents

Acknowledgements Map: the Asia-Pacific region Introduction Part I. Modernity and Nation-States at the Dawn of the Global Era: 1. Traditional states and colonisation 2. The modern constitution 3. Writing the constitution Part II. The Constitution of Modernity: 4. The legislature 5. Representation 6. Head of state 7. Constitutional revision Part III. Democracy and the Rule of Law: 8. Courts and the judiciary 9. The suspension of constitutional power 10. Devolution Conclusion: postmodernity and constitutionalism Appendix: chronology of constitutional events in the Asia Pacific Bibliography Index.

Asia–Pacific Constitutional Systems: Democracy and the Rule of Law

Acknowledgements Map: the Asia-Pacific region Introduction Part I. Modernity and Nation-States at the Dawn of the Global Era: 1. Traditional states and colonisation 2. The modern constitution 3. Writing the constitution Part II. The Constitution of Modernity: 4. The legislature 5. Representation 6. Head of state 7. Constitutional revision Part III. Democracy and the Rule of Law: 8. Courts and the judiciary 9. The suspension of constitutional power 10. Devolution Conclusion: postmodernity and constitutionalism Appendix: chronology of constitutional events in the Asia Pacific Bibliography Index.