Graham Philip

Evaluation of Corona and Ikonos high resolution satellite imagery for archaeological prospection in western Syria

Satellite surveys in Syria have made use of imagery recorded some 30 years apart. By comparing the earlier pictures (Corona) with the later (Ikonos), sites captured on the former can be accurately located by the latter. The comparison also reveals the stark implications for archaeology as large parts of west Asian landscape change from a state of ‘benign neglect’ to active redevelopment. Based on their experience in the Homs survey, the authors have important advice to offer in the design and costing of surveys using satellite imagery.

Settlement and landscape development in the Homs Region, Syria : research questions, preliminary results 1999-2000 and future potential.

Abstract This report describes the results of the first and second seasons of field work by an interdisciplinary research team studying the landscape history of the upper Orontes Valley near Homs in western Syria. Initial discussions address the value of survey data to Syrian archaeology, the research aims of the project and describe the survey area. The project methodology, which includes a combination of both extensive and intensive survey methods, is outlined, and the use of satellite imagery as a means of site location discussed. Work on geomorphological processes and off-site artefact distributions has facilitated the development of sampling strategies for intensive surface collection planned for 2002 and 2003. A test core has established that pollen is well-preserved in the silts of Lake Qattine, which appear to offer a west Syrian palaeoenvironmental sequence. Preliminary work in the basalt terrain west of Homs has allowed the refinement of methodologies for the mapping and analysis of cairns and field systems which predominate in this area, and has highlighted the threat resulting from current bulldozing. The report concludes with some preliminary observations on the main trends as these are emerging from the data.

Late Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age Landscapes of Settlement and Mobility in the Middle Euphrates: A Reassessment

Abstract Urbanization occupies an ambiguous position in the development of the Middle Euphrates region of Turkey and Syria, in part because the area frequently formed a contested region between other stronger Early Bronze Age polities. This paper aims to review evidence from a series of archaeological surveys to illustrate trends in settlement during the 4th and 3rd millennium BC. Re-analysis of survey data from three exemplar regions in the Middle Euphrates demonstrates that by including settlement away from the main Euphrates Valley we get a picture of two main zones of settlement corresponding to agro-ecological zones. In the northern zone, settlements underwent phases of nucleation and dispersal through time, but long-term configurations were relatively stable. In contrast, a southern zone, south of the Sajur Valley, was characterized by rapid colonization and some degree of boom and bust growth of towns, perhaps encouraged by the opportunities afforded by the high risk but high rewards of the ‘zone of uncertainty’. Although ecological conditions and climate change played a role in settlement growth and failure, in part by setting the parameters for agro-pastoral production, it is evident that socio-political circumstances, chronic conflict and sheer opportunism were probably key to both the growth and decline of the southern settlements.

Copper Metallurgy in the Jordan Valley from the Third to the First Millennia BC: Chemical, Metallographic and Lead Isotope Analyses of Artefacts from Pella

Abstract This paper investigates Bronze and Iron Age metallurgy in the Levant while recognizing that metal artefacts were employed within a world in which social, economic and technological factors were closely intertwined. This theme is addressed through the investigation of sixty-eight copper-base artefacts from the site of Pella in the Jordan Valley, taken from contexts spanning the Early Bronze Age through to the early Iron Age. Data arising from a combination of chemical, metallographic and lead isotope analyses are considered in terms of artefact typology, manufacturing techniques and archaeological context, and their social and economic implications for ancient metallurgy discussed.

Long term population, city size and climate trends in the Fertile Crescent : a first approximation.

Over the last 8000 years the Fertile Crescent of the Near East has seen the emergence of urban agglomerations, small scale polities and large territorial empires, all of which had profound effects on settlement patterns. Computational approaches, including the use of remote sensing data, allow us to analyse these changes at unprecedented geographical and temporal scales. Here we employ these techniques to examine and compare long term trends in urbanisation, population and climate records. Maximum city size is used as a proxy for the intensity of urbanisation, whilst population trends are modelled from settlement densities in nine archaeological surveys conducted over the last 30 years across the region. These two measures are then compared with atmospheric moisture levels derived from multiple proxy analyses from two locations close to the study area, Soreq Cave in Israel and Lake Van in south-eastern Turkey, as well as wider literature. The earliest urban sites emerged during a period of relatively high atmospheric moisture levels and conform to a series of size thresholds. However, after the Early Bronze Age maximum urban size and population levels increase rapidly whilst atmospheric moisture declines. We argue that although the initial phase of urbanization may have been linked to climate conditions, we can see a definitive decoupling of climate and settlement patterns after 2000 BC. We relate this phenomenon to changes in socio-economic organisation and integration in large territorial empires. The complex relationships sustaining urban growth during this later period resulted in an increase in system fragility and ultimately impacted on the sustainability of cities in the long term.

Some techniques for improving the detection of archaeological features from satellite imagery

In common with all domains of remote sensing, residues indicative of past human activity can only be detected if they exhibit some form of identifiable contrast with their surroundings. Unlike many other domains these residues do not exhibit consistent spectral signatures. Archaeological spectral responses are commonly expressed as subtle deviations from their surrounding matrix. This is true for crop marks, soil marks and thermal anomalies. The challenge is to collect imagery when the contrast between archaeological residues and the background matrix is maximized and thus to find algorithms that will enhance these sometimes subtle distinctions so that they can be more readily detected. This paper will present work undertaken in the semi-arid environment of Homs, Syria. The project area includes two contrasting environmental zones with a differing repertoire of archaeological remains: a basalt zone (120 km2) and a marl zone (480 km2). Declassified Corona space photography and Ikonos satellite imagery (panchromatic and multispectral) were evaluated to determine their efficacy for detecting a range of different archaeological residues. No single image set was able to provide the best result for the two zones, as each required imagery collected under different environmental conditions.

The Archaeological Exploitation of Declassified Satellite Photography in Semi-arid Environments

Declassified satellite photographs are becoming an increasingly important archaeological tool. Not only are they useful for residue prospection and, when in stereo pairs, digital elevation model (DEM) generation, they can also provide large-scale temporal snapshots that provide essential information on landscape change. Importantly, in some instances, declassified photographs may be the only available record of archaeological residues that have subsequently been eradicated.

Correction: Long Term Population, City Size and Climate Trends in the Fertile Crescent: A First Approximation

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0152563.].

High Resolution Elevation Data Derived from Stereoscopic CORONA Imagery with Minimal Ground Control

The first space mission to provide stereoscopic imagery of the Earth’s surface was from the American CORONA spy satellite program from which it is possible to generate Digital Elevation Models (DEMs). CORONA imagery and derived DEMs are of most value in areas where conventional topographic maps are of poor quality, but the problem has been that until recently, it was difficult to assess their accuracy. This paper presents a methodology to create a high quality DEM from CORONA imagery using horizontal ground control derived from Ikonos space imagery and vertical ground control from map-based contour lines. Such DEMs can be produced without the need for field-based ground control measurements which is an advantage in many parts of world where ground surveying is difficult. Knowledge of CORONA image distortions, satellite geometry, ground resolution, and film scanning are important factors that can affect the DEM extraction process. A study area in Syria is used to demonstrate the method, and Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) data is used to perform quantitative and qualitative accuracy assessment of the automatically extracted DEM. The SRTM data has enormous importance for validating the quality of CORONA DEMs, and so, unlocking the potential of a largely untapped part of the archive. We conclude that CORONA data can produce unbiased, high-resolution DEM data which may be valuable for researchers working in countries where topographic data is difficult to obtain.

Drinking on the periphery : the Tell Nebi Mend goblets in their regional and archaeometric context.

This paper explores the late 3rd millennium BC goblet corpus from Tell Nebi Mend in the upper Orontes Valley, Syria, by comparing the form, size, petrographic and chemical composition of these drin...