Graham S. Clarke

The validation of analytical methods for drug substances and drug products in UK pharmaceutical laboratories.

Results of a survey on method validation of analytical procedures used in the testing of drug substances and finished products, of most major research based pharmaceutical companies with laboratories in the UK, are presented. The results indicate that although method validation shows an essential similarity in different laboratories (in particular, chromatographic assay methods are validated in a similar manner in most laboratories), there is much diversity in the detailed application of validation parameters. Testing procedures for drug substances are broadly similar to finished products. Many laboratories validate methods at clinical trial stage to the same extent and detail as at the marketing authorization application (MAA)/new drug application (NDA) submission stage, however, only a small minority of laboratories apply the same criteria to methodology at pre-clinical trial stage. Extensive details of method validation parameters are included in the summary tables of this survey, together with details of the median response given for the validation of the most extensively applied methods. These median response details could be useful in suggesting a harmonized approach to method validation as applied by UK pharmaceutical laboratories. These guidelines would extend beyond the recommendations made to date by regulatory authorities and pharmacopoeias in that minimum requirements for each method validation parameter, e.g. number of replicates, range and tolerance, could be harmonized, both between laboratories and also in Product Licence submissions.

Physical Stability and Recrystallization Kinetics of Amorphous Ibipinabant Drug Product by Fourier Transform Raman Spectroscopy

The solid-state physical stability and recrystallization kinetics during storage stability are described for an amorphous solid dispersed drug substance, ibipinabant, at a low concentration (1.0%, w/w) in a solid oral dosage form (tablet). The recrystallization behavior of the amorphous ibipinabant-polyvinylpyrrolidone solid dispersion in the tablet product was characterized by Fourier transform (FT) Raman spectroscopy. A partial least-square analysis used for multivariate calibration based on Raman spectra was developed and validated to detect less than 5% (w/w) of the crystalline form (equivalent to less than 0.05% of the total mass of the tablet). The method provided reliable and highly accurate predictive crystallinity assessments after exposure to a variety of stability storage conditions. It was determined that exposure to moisture had a significant impact on the crystallinity of amorphous ibipinabant. The information provided by the method has potential utility for predictive physical stability assessments. Dissolution testing demonstrated that the predicted crystallinity had a direct correlation with this physical property of the drug product. Recrystallization kinetics was measured using FT Raman spectroscopy for the solid dispersion from the tablet product stored at controlled temperature and relative humidity. The measurements were evaluated by application of the Johnson-Mehl-Avrami (JMA) kinetic model to determine recrystallization rate constants and Avrami exponent (n = 2). The analysis showed that the JMA equation could describe the process very well, and indicated that the recrystallization kinetics observed was a two-step process with an induction period (nucleation) followed by rod-like crystal growth.

Stability of indomethacin with relevance to the release from amorphous solid dispersions studied with ATR-FTIR spectroscopic imaging.

This work presents the use of attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy and spectroscopic imaging to study the stability and dissolution behaviour of amorphous solid dispersions (ASDs). ASDs are employed to improve the bioavailability of drugs which are poorly soluble in aqueous solutions. Selecting the appropriate polymeric excipients for use in pharmaceutical tablets is crucial to control drug stability and subsequent release. In this study, indomethacin was used as a model poorly-aqueous soluble drug since the amorphous-form has improved dissolution properties over its crystalline forms. ASDs of indomethacin/polyethylene glycol (PEG) and indomethacin/hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) in a 1:3 wt ratio were compared. Firstly, ATR-FTIR spectroscopy was employed to monitor the stability of indomethacin in the ASDs over 96 h. While the indomethacin/HPMC ASD showed the ability to maintain the amorphous indomethacin form for longer periods of time, ATR-FTIR spectra revealed that indomethacin in the drug/PEG ASD crystallised to the stable γ-form, via the α-form. Secondly, ATR-FTIR spectroscopic imaging was used to study the dissolution of ASD tablets in a phosphate buffer (pH 7.5). Crystallisation of amorphous indomethacin was characterised in the spectra collected during the dissolution of the indomethacin/PEG ASD which consequently hindered release into the surrounding solution. In contrast, release of amorphous indomethacin was more effective from HPMC.

Application of FTIR spectroscopic imaging to study the effects of modifying the pH microenvironment on the dissolution of ibuprofen from HPMC matrices

This work presents the novel application of attenuated total reflection-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopic (ATR-FTIR) imaging to study the dissolution of ibuprofen form tablets in which the internal pH of the matrix has been modified by addition of acidic and basic powders to the formulations. Acidic additives to the matrix retarded the dissolution of crystalline ibuprofen domains. Basic additives formed both soluble and insoluble salts with the ibuprofen depending on the pH modifier added. Tablets consisting of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, ibuprofen, and an acidic or basic additive were studied. FTIR imaging in ATR mode was used for analysis of water ingress into the tablet and the presence, distribution, and chemical state of the drug. The FTIR imaging data showed distinct changes in the dissolution of crystalline ibuprofen between the formulations with different pH modifiers. In the basic formulations, FTIR imaging identified the formation of salts. The sodium salt formed was highly soluble and enhanced dissolution, whereas the calcium salt was highly insoluble and slowed the dissolution. FTIR imaging has produced important data concerning the internal matrix dissolution performance.

Investigation and optimisation of the use of organic modifiers in micellar electrokinetic chromatography

Abstract The effect of organic modifiers (methanol, ethanol, propan-2-ol, butan-1-ol, butan-2-ol, acetone, methyl ethyl ketone and acetonitrile) on the micellar electrokinetic chromatographic (MEKC) resolution and migration time of seven model compounds has been investigated. The compounds used were all drugs reported to have cardiovascular antiarrhythmic activity, The organic modifiers have each been investiated at 5, 10 and 15% (v/v) of the electrophoretic buffer (100 mM borate buffer pH 8.1 containing 50 mM SDS as surfactant), to determine the optimum resolution and peak shape. The elution order under almost every condition corresponded to increasing molecular mass of the analyte drugs. Propan-2-ol at a concentration of 10% (v/v) gave optimum separation of the analytes. Replicate injections under these conditions gave excellent precision data for the migration time and corrected peak area. Other modifiers which gave baseline resolution of the analytes but less precise repeatability data were acetone and methyl ethyl ketone.

Investigation and optimisation of the use of micellar electrokinetic chromatography for the analysis of six cardiovascular drugs

A micellar electrokinetic chromatography method was optimised for the separation of the six cardiovascular drugs atenolol, nicardipine, nifedipine, diltiazem, verapamil, and amlodipine by investigating the effects of pH, sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) concentration, selection and concentration of organic modifier. An electrophoresis buffer of 100 mM borate pH 8.1 containing 50 mM SDS and 15% (v/v) acetone was found to provide the optimum separation with respect to resolution and migration time.

Dissolution of tablet-in-tablet formulations studied with ATR-FTIR spectroscopic imaging.

This work uses ATR-FTIR spectroscopic imaging to study the dissolution of delayed release and pH resistant compressed coating pharmaceutical tablets. Tablets with an inner core and outer shell were constructed using a custom designed compaction cell. The core of the delayed release tablets consisted of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) and caffeine. The shell consisted of microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) and glucose. The core of the pH resistant formulations was an ibuprofen and PEG melt and the shell was constructed from HPMC and a basic buffer. UV/vis spectroscopy was used to monitor the lag-time of drug release and visible optical video imaging was used as a complementary imaging technique with a larger field of view. Two delayed release mechanisms were established. For tablets with soluble shell sections, lag-time was dependent upon rapid shell dissolution. For tablets with less soluble shells, the lag-time was controlled by the rate of dissolution medium ingress through the shell and the subsequent expansion of the wet HPMC core. The pH resistant formulations prevented crystallization of the ibuprofen in the core during dissolution despite an acidic dissolution medium. FTIR imaging produced important information about the physical and chemical processes occurring at the interface between tablet sections during dissolution.

Selectivity of capillary electrophoresis for the analysis of cardiovascular drugs

Examples of several classes of cardiovascular drugs have been separated using capillary electrophoresis and its associated application, micellar electrokinetic chromatography. The therapeutic classes of drug investigated include β-blockers, antiarrhythmic, calcium channel antagonists and angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors. The exceptional selectivity of capillary electrophoresis is demonstrated using conditions that separate some twenty cardiovascular drugs in a single mixture, including all the aforementioned classes of drugs. The compounds have unrelated structures and varying molecular masses and yet are still resolved using a single set of conditions. The application of such selectivity is discussed together with a comparison with high-performance liquid chromatography.

Attenuated total reflection-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopic imaging of pharmaceuticals in microfluidic devices.

The poor aqueous solubility of many active pharmaceutical ingredients presents challenges for effective drug delivery. In this study, the combination of attenuated total reflection (ATR)-FTIR spectroscopic imaging with specifically designed polydimethylsiloxane microfluidic devices to study drug release from pharmaceutical formulations has been developed. First, the high-throughput analysis of the dissolution of micro-formulations studied under flowing conditions has been introduced using a model formulation of ibuprofen and polyethylene glycol. The behaviour and release of the drug was monitored in situ under different pH conditions. In contrast to the neutral solution, where both the drug and excipient dissolved at a similar rate, structural change from the molecularly dispersed to a crystalline form of ibuprofen was characterised in the obtained spectroscopic images and the corresponding ATR-FTIR spectra for the experiments carried out in the acidic medium. Further investigations into the behaviour of the drug after its release from formulations (i.e., dissolved drug) were also undertaken. Different solutions of sodium ibuprofen dissolved in a neutral medium were studied upon contact with acidic conditions. The phase transition from a dissolved species of sodium ibuprofen to the formation of solid crystalline ibuprofen was revealed in the microfluidic channels. This innovative approach could offer a promising platform for high-throughput analysis of a range of micro-formulations, which are of current interest due to the advent of 3D printed pharmaceutical and microparticulate delivery systems. Furthermore, the ability to study dissolved drug in solution under flowing conditions can be useful for the studies of the diffusion of drugs into tissues or live cells.

Evaluating drug delivery with salt formation: Drug disproportionation studied in situ by ATR-FTIR imaging and Raman mapping.

Two different vibrational spectroscopic approaches, ATR-FTIR spectroscopic imaging and Raman mapping, were used to investigate the components within a tablet containing an ionised drug during dissolution experiments. Delivering certain drugs in their salt form is a method that can be used to improve the bioavailability and dissolution of the poorly aqueous soluble materials. However, these ionised species have a propensity to covert back to their thermodynamically favourable free acid or base forms. Dissolution experiments of the ionised drug in different aqueous media resulted in conversion to the more poorly soluble free acid form, which is detrimental for controlled drug release. This study investigates the chemical changes occurring to formulations containing a development ionised drug (37% by weight), in different aqueous pH environments. Firstly, dissolution in a neutral medium was studied, showing that there was clear release of ionised monosodium form of the drug from the tablet as it swelled in the aqueous medium. There was no presence of any drug in the monohydrate free acid form detected in these experiments. Dissolution in an acidic (0.1M HCl) solution showed disproportionation forming the free acid form. Disproportionation occurred rapidly upon contact with the acidic solution, initially resulting in a shell of the monohydrate free acid form around the tablet edges. This slowed ingress of the solution into the tablet before full conversion of the ionised form to the free acid form was characterised in the spectroscopic data.