Grahame J. Coleman

Human-livestock interactions : the stockperson and the productivity and welfare of intensively farmed animals

The ethics of animal farming - implications for the stockperson human-animal interactions and the productivity and welfare of farm animals the stockperson as a professional - skills, knowledge and status attitudes of stockpersons - their development, maintenance and implications stockperson behaviour - their development, maintenance and implications a model of stockperson-animal interactions and their implications for farm animals changing stockperson attitudes and behaviour, and the consequences for farm animals stockperson training and selection - the future.

Behavioural response to humans and the productivity of commercial dairy cows

This study examined the relationships between the attitude and the behaviour of the stockperson towards cows and the behavioural response to humans and the milk production of cows at 31 commercial dairy farms over one lactation. The attitude of the stockperson was measured on the basis of the stockpersons opinion of the cows behaviour and how the stockperson evaluated his own behaviour. The behaviour of the stockperson was measured by recording the nature and frequency of the tactile interactions and some visual and auditory interactions directed towards the cows. The behavioural response of cows to humans was assessed by observing their approach behaviour to an unfamiliar experimenter in a standard test and production records were collected for the entire lactation at each farm. Correlation and regression analyses using farm averages were used to examine relationships between human and cow variables. Several cow behaviour variables, indicative of fear of humans, were moderately (P<0.05) to highly (P<0.01) correlated with milk yield and composition and regression analysis indicated that fear of humans accounted for 19% of the variation in milk yield between farms. The results suggest that at farms where milk yield was low, cows showed less approach to the experimenter in the standard fear test than at farms where milk yield was higher. A composite attitude score, based on the responses of stockpeople to questions about patting and talking to cows, ease of movement of cows and cows recognising unfamiliar stockpeople, was moderately (P<0.05) to highly (P<0.01) correlated with the behaviour of the stockperson. While a number of stockperson behaviour variables were correlated (P<0.05) with milk yield, the former variables were generally poorly correlated with cow behaviour. Therefore these preliminary findings provide evidence that, as seen in the pig industry, sequential relationships may exist between the attitude and behaviour of the stockperson and the behaviour and productivity of commercial dairy cows. Research is required to further examine these relationships because of the possible implications on cow productivity and welfare.

Conditioned response models of placebo phenomena: Further support.

&NA; Following our earlier research [37], we further investigated a model that conceptualizes placebo phenomena as the result of conditioning [40] and attempted to extend and replicate the finding that placebo responses can be conditioned in human subjects. Two groups of 10 subjects were told that they were receiving an analgesic which was in fact a placebo. During the conditioning, placebo administration was surreptitiously paired with an increase in the painful stimulus for half of the subjects and with a decrease for the other half. Subjects were tested pre and post conditioning for a placebo response. A second type of experimental pain was also used to determine stimulus generalization. The results confirmed a previous finding that placebo responses can be conditioned in human subjects. The implications for clinical practice of a learning model of placebo behavior are discussed.

A study of the relationships between the attitudinal and behavioural profiles of stockpersons and the level of fear of humans and reproductive performance of commercial pigs

This study examined the relationships between the attitude of the stockperson, the behaviour of the stockperson, the level of fear of humans by sows and reproductive performance at 19 commercial farms. The attitude of the stockperson was measured with respect to the stockpersons opinion of the pigs behaviour and how the stockperson evaluated his own behaviour, and the observations on the stockpersons behaviour concentrated on the nature of the physical interactions directed towards pigs. The level of fear of humans by sows was assessed by observing their approach behaviour to an experimenter in a standard 3-min test. Some of the variables of the stockpersons attitude and behaviour were significant predictors of the level of fear of humans by sows. For example, the attitude of the stockperson towards petting pigs and the proportion of physical interactions by the stockperson that were negative (aversive) in nature were significantly (P<0.01) related to the time taken for sows to physically interact with the experimenter in the standard 3-min test. The level of fear of humans was highly associated with the reproductive performance of the sow. The time taken to enter an area within 0.5 m of the experimenter in the standard 3-min test was significantly (P<0.01) related to the farrowing rate of the sows. As a result of these relationships, it is not surprising that some of the variables of the stockpersons attitude and behaviour were good predictors of reproductive performance. For example, the attitude to the use of verbal effort in moving pigs and the number of physical interactions of an intence negative nature were both highly (P<0.01) related to the total litter size. These relationships demonstrate that there may be substantial potential to reduce the level of fear of humans by commercial sows, in order to improve reproductive performance, by employing stockpersons that have desirable attitudinal and behavioural profiles.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ATTITUDES, PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS AND BEHAVIOUR OF STOCKPEOPLE AND SUBSEQUENT BEHAVIOUR AND PRODUCTION OF DAIRY COWS

The relationships amongst attitudes and personal characteristics of stockpeople, their interactions with cows, the behaviour of cows during milking towards humans and average milk yield were investigated on 30 small, family-run dairy farms where cows were housed in a cubicle shed. Several components of the stockperson’s attitude (beliefs, emotions and behavioural intentions) towards characteristics of cows and to behaviour towards cows were measured using a questionnaire. Personal characteristics were assessed using a self-report inventory. Tactile and acoustic behaviour towards the cows was observed during moving and milking. The avoidance distance of cows towards an experimenter was tested in the barn and their flinch/step/kick responses during milking was recorded. Attitude items were reduced, using principal components analysis, to 4 general and 11 behavioural attitude components. Spearman rank correlation and, with milk yield, partial correlations were calculated. The behaviour of stockpeople was strongly correlated with the behaviour of cows and moderately to milk yield: if stockpeople used a high absolute number and percentage of positive interactions and a low number and percentage of negative behaviours, respectively, in the milking parlour, cows avoided humans less (P<0.01). Higher use of neutral (moderate use of the hand, moderately loud vocalisations, using a stick gently) behaviours was related to more stepping/kicking of cows during milking and a lower milk yield (P<0.05). According to the results, attitudes and personal characteristics are important determinants of stockperson–cow interactions and production success. Several behavioural attitude components correlated significantly with stockperson behaviour (P<0.01 to P<0.05) and milk yield (P<0.05). General attitudes showed limited correlations with human behaviour, but correlated strongly with behavioural attitudes (P<0.01 to P<0.05). Personal characteristics were related to the attitudes as well as to the behaviour of stockpeople (P<0.05 to P<0.01); stockpeople high on agreeableness used more positive interactions and less neutral ones (P<0.05), while pessimists were low on positive attitudes to cows. In sum, results indicate a strong influence of the stockperson’s attitudes and personal characteristics on the behaviour of the stockperson and subsequently on the cows’ fear of humans, behaviour and milk yield. Results suggest that milk yield is lower on farms where stockpeople have negative attitudes towards interacting with cows during milking and use more neutral behaviours. The main attitude components responsible for positive and negative behaviour were identified, and this new measures of attitude and personal characteristics proved to be good predictors of stockperson behaviour. This is encouraging with respect to possibilities for improving human–animal interactions on small dairy farms by changing the relevant attitudes and behaviour of the stockpeople and subsequently to improve animal welfare and production.

Conditioned placebo responses.

Following earlier animal research, we attempt to condition placebo effects in human subjects. Four groups of 8 voluntary subjects were told that the experimenters would test a powerful new analgesic cream over three sessions by assessing its ability to reduce experimentally induced pain. The analgesic cream was, in fact, a placebo. In the first session all subjects were tested with and without the cream to assess their placebo response. In the second session, to condition two groups (with differing stimulation levels) to experience pain relief in response to the placebo, we repeatedly paired a reduction in nocioceptive stimulation with placebo administration. (Subjects were unaware that stimulation levels were manipulated). To condition the other two groups (with different stimulation levels) to experience an exacerbation of the pain, we paired an increase in nocioceptive stimulation with placebo administration. In the third session, all subjects were again tested for placebo response. Results suggested that placebo responses are conditionable in the laboratory in both a positive and negative direction. The clinical implications of a learning theory of placebo behavior are discussed.

Evidence for a separate meal-associated oscillator in the rat

Three experiments were conducted to explore the relationship between food availability and the wheel running activity rhythms of intact rats. In two experiments re-entrainment when meal times were changed was studied. The rats showed an increase in activity immediately prior to a regular feeding time and this increase was more rapid when rats had been fed at that time in an earlier condition. Some evidence of transients at a former meal time was observed when the meal time was shifted to later in the day, but not when the meal time was shifted to earlier in the day. This led to the hypothesis that ad lib feeding masks rather than abolishes meal-entrained activity. In a third experiment, therefore, rats were entrained to a daily meal under a light-dark (LD) cycle, then placed in constant dark (DD) on ad lib food with occasional periods of deprivation. A burst of activity associated with the former meal time occurred during the deprivation period, but not during ad lib periods; it returned during subsequent deprivation. It is concluded that meal feeding entrains a separate oscillator with a period different from the oscillator entrained by the LD cycle.

A survey of dog ownership in suburban Australia—conditions and behaviour problems

There has been an increasing emphasis in Australia on confining dogs to owner’s properties (household backyards) as a solution to problems of dog aggression. Therefore, there is a need to determine the social and physical conditions that make up the dog’s backyard environment and how these factors may affect dog behaviour and welfare. The aim of this study was to provide an overview of the conditions provided to dogs in suburban Melbourne (Australia) and any behavioural problems associated with these conditions. A survey of 203 dog owners across suburban Melbourne was conducted. The questionnaire consisted of questions relating to demographics, the dogs’ routine and confinement and what behaviours the owners observed in their dogs. The relationship between some of the environmental factors and the occurrence of problem behaviour was then examined. The main behaviour problems reported by owners were overexcitement (63%) and jumping up on people (56%). Some of the factors that were correlated with the occurrence of problem behaviours included how well the dog obeyed commands (P<0.01), whether the owner had owned a dog before (P<0.01) and how much time was spent with the dog (P<0.01). Dogs that had obedience training were more likely to obey commands than those that that did not (P<0.01) and large dogs were more likely to receive training than small dogs (P<0.01). These findings provide an interesting insight into some of the factors that may be related to the occurrence of behaviour problems in dogs.

Fear of novel and startling stimuli in domestic dogs

Dog aggression to humans is a serious problem and it appears that fear-induced aggression in dogs is often implicated. Furthermore, it has been suggested that novel and startling stimuli may trigger fear-induced aggression. The aim of the present study was to study some possible behavioural and physiological measures of fear in the dog Canis familiaris in tests involving novel and startling stimuli. Dogs (n=108) of various breeds, sex and experience were observed in four tests previously reported to induce fear-related responses in various animal species. A range of behavioural and physiological variables was recorded, such as latencies to approach the stimulus, time spent near stimulus and heart rate changes. Data were examined using correlation analysis and principal component analysis (PCA). Moderate to high correlations were found between some of the variables within and between the tests and a number of variables were identified in three components determined by the PCA. These three components accounted for 48% of the total variation and components 1 and 3 contained high loadings for the latency to approach and time spent near the stimulus in a novel object test and a startling test, respectively. Component 2 contained variables measuring latencies and entries to areas in a light/dark test and an elevated plus maze test. It is suggested that component 1 may be a measure of a response to novelty and component 3 may be a measure of a response to startling stimuli, while component 2 may be a measure of exploration. Components 1 and 3 may thus be appropriate measures of different aspects of fear. The suitability of each test and its limitations in measuring fear of novel and startling stimuli in the dog are discussed.

Improving the attitude and behaviour of stockpersons towards pigs and the consequences on the behaviour and reproductive performance of commercial pigs

This study examined firstly whether it is possible to improve the attitudinal and behavioural profiles of stockpersons towards pigs and, if successful, secondly the consequences of these attitudinal and behavioural changes on the behaviour and productivity of commercial breeding pigs. Two treatments were imposed: a modification treatment, consisting of a cognitive-behavioural intervention procedure designed to modify the behaviour of stockpersons towards pigs; a control treatment, where no intervention was attempted. Thirty-five commercial farms were selected for study on the basis of their suitability and 25 farms completed this 2 year study (13 modification and 12 control). The effectiveness of the intervention programme was assessed by monitoring the changes in the attitudinal and behavioural profiles of stockpersons, and the behaviour and reproductive performance of pigs at the two groups of farms from an 8 month pre-modification period to a 15 month post-modification period. An analysis of the proportional changes in the attitude, behaviour and production variables from the pre-modification period to the post-modification period revealed some significant treatment effects on both the attitude and behaviour of the stockpersons towards pigs, and the behavioural response of pigs to humans. For example, the modification treatment resulted in a greater (P<0.05) increase in the total score given by the stockperson to those attitude questions relating to petting and talking to pigs, indicative of a more positive belief towards these behaviours. Corresponding with this relative improvement in the attitude of stockpersons at the modification farms was a significant (P<0.01) reduction in the percentage of physical interactions displayed by the stockperson which were negative in nature at the modification farms relative to stockpersons at the control farms. These relative improvements in the attitude and behaviour of stockpersons at the modification farms corresponded with a significant relative reduction in the level of fear of humans by pigs at these farms. There were increases (P<0.05) in the time that pigs spent within 0.5 m of the experimenter and in the number of interactions with the experimenter in the standard test for pigs at the modification farms relative to pigs at the control farms. While the difference was not significant (P<0.11), there was a strong tendency for an increase in the number of pigs born per sow per year at the modification farms relative to the control farms (+6% and −3%, respectively). In general, these results, together with the results on the adverse effects of increasing the level of fear in experimental pigs, indicate that fear of humans may be an integral component in the pathway(s) in which human factors, such as human attitude and behaviour, affect animal productivity and welfare.