Greg Mears

Emergency Medical Service Dispatch Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation Prearrival Instructions to Improve Survival From Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association

Each year, millions of people around the world experience out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA), a condition characterized by unexpected cardiovascular collapse.1,2 OHCA is a leading cause of death. The incidence of treated OHCA is ≈50 to 60 per 100 000 person-years and is comparable throughout many parts of the world. Resuscitation of these patients is challenging and requires a coordinated set of rescuer actions termed the “Chain of Survival.” The links in the Chain of Survival are immediate recognition of cardiac arrest and activation of the emergency response system, early cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), rapid defibrillation, effective advanced life support, and integrated post–cardiac arrest care.3 These actions involve the participation of a spectrum of rescuers, including family members, bystanders, emergency medical service (EMS) dispatchers, pre–hospital care providers, and hospital-based personnel; each group of rescuers has specific motivations, responsibilities, and skills. Unfortunately, in most communities in the United States and Canada, only 5% to 10% of all OHCA patients in whom resuscitation is attempted survive to discharge from the hospital. In contrast, survival rates can approach 20% (50% for witnessed ventricular fibrillation) in communities where the Chain of Survival is strong.4 Efforts to improve survival from OHCA should be aimed at strengthening each link in the Chain of Survival. An important underpinning of successful resuscitation is the interdependence of each of these links. Specifically, the early links, those involving bystanders (immediate emergency activation and early bystander CPR), are essential for the effectiveness of subsequent links. Thus, efforts that can improve early recognition of OHCA and increase bystander CPR are likely to improve survival from OHCA. When a bystander calls the community emergency response number (eg, 911 in the United States) to request medical aid, the call creates an opportunity to improve both identification of OHCA and provision of …

The Impact of a Statewide Pre-Hospital STEMI Strategy to Bypass Hospitals Without Percutaneous Coronary Intervention Capability on Treatment Times

Background— The ultimate treatment goal for ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) is rapid reperfusion via primary percutaneous intervention (PCI). North Carolina has adopted a statewide STEMI referral strategy that advises paramedics to bypass local hospitals and transport STEMI patients directly to a PCI-capable hospital, even if a non-PCI-capable hospital is closer. Methods and Results— We assessed the adherence of emergency medical services to this STEMI protocol, as well as subsequent associations with patient treatment times and outcomes by linking data from the Acute Coronary Treatment and Intervention Outcomes Network Registry®—Get With the Guidelines™ and a statewide emergency medical services data system from June 2008 to September 2010 for all patients with STEMI. Patients were divided into those (1) transported directly to a PCI hospital, thereby bypassing a closer non-PCI hospital and (2) first taken to a closer non-PCI center and later transferred to a PCI hospital. Among 6010 patients with STEMI, 1288 were eligible and included in our study cohort. Of these, 826 (64%) were transported directly to a PCI facility, whereas 462 (36%) were first taken to a non-PCI hospital and later transferred. In a multivariable model, increase in differential driving time and cardiac arrest were associated with a lesser likelihood of being taken directly to a PCI center, whereas a history of PCI was associated with a higher likelihood of being taken directly to a PCI center. Patients sent directly to a PCI center were more likely to have times between first medical contact and PCI within guideline recommendations. Conclusions— We found that patients who were sent directly to a PCI center had significantly shorter time to reperfusion.

Development of systems of care for ST-Elevation myocardial infarction patients. The emergency medical services and emergency department perspective.

Central to the development of systems and centers of care for ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) patients will be the key role played by emergency medical services (EMS) at entry into the system and within the system when emergency interhospital transport is required. ### Emergency Medical Services System Design Prehospital EMS systems have 3 major components: emergency medical dispatch, public safety (fire and law enforcement) first response, and EMS ambulance response. Each of these operates within a broader emergency care system, which includes acute care facilities and regionalized healthcare services. In most states, an EMS regulatory entity within the state government oversees the emergency care system. Many states have regional EMS councils and advisory boards that function with varying levels of authority. #### Emergency Medical Dispatch Early access to EMS is promoted by a 9-1-1 system currently available to >95% of the US population. Enhanced 9-1-1 systems provide the caller’s location and number to the dispatcher, which permits rapid dispatch of prehospital personnel to locations even if the caller is not capable of verbalizing or the dispatcher cannot understand the location and telephone number of the emergency. Although cellular phones have been problematic because they do not stay in a fixed location, new technology exists that allows triangulation of a cellular phone caller’s location. This technology is being phased in throughout the country at a rapid pace. In most communities, law enforcement or public safety officials are responsible for operating 9-1-1 centers, because in most locations, 85% of calls are for police assistance, 10% are for EMS, and 5% are for fire-related emergencies. Dispatchers who staff 9-1-1 centers may have minimal medical training, be emergency medical technicians, or on occasion be paramedics trained and certified as emergency medical dispatchers. In any case, dispatchers operate under standardized, written (often computerized) protocols. Such protocols are developed nationally and then modified locally or nationally. …

Expansion of a Regional ST-Segment Elevation Myocardial Infarction System to an Entire State

Background— Despite national guidelines calling for timely coronary artery reperfusion, treatment is often delayed, particularly for patients requiring interhospital transfer. Methods and Results— One hundred nineteen North Carolina hospitals developed coordinated plans to rapidly treat patients with ST-segment–elevation myocardial infarction according to presentation: walk-in, ambulance, or hospital transfer. A total of 6841 patients with ST-segment–elevation myocardial infarction (3907 directly presenting to 21 percutaneous coronary intervention hospitals, 2933 transferred from 98 non–percutaneous coronary intervention hospitals) were treated between July 2008 and December 2009 (age, 59 years; 30% women; 19% uninsured; chest pain duration, 91 minutes; shock, 9.2%). The rate of patients not receiving reperfusion fell from 5.4% to 4.0% (P=0.04). Treatment times for hospital transfer patients substantially improved. First-hospital-door-to-device time for hospitals that adopted a “transfer for percutaneous coronary intervention” reperfusion strategy fell from 117 to 103 minutes (P=0.0008), whereas times at hospitals with a mixed strategy of transfer or fibrinolysis fell from 195 to 138 minutes (P=0.002). Median door-to-device times for patients presenting directly to PCI hospitals fell from 64 to 59 minutes (P<0.001). Emergency medical services–transported patients were most likely to reach door-to-device goals, with 91% treated within 90 minutes and 52% being treated with 60 minutes. Patients treated within guideline goals had a mortality of 2.2% compared with 5.7% for those exceeding guideline recommendations (P<0.001). Conclusion— Through extension of regional coordination to an entire state, rapid diagnosis and treatment of ST-segment–elevation myocardial infarction has become an established standard of care independently of healthcare setting or geographic location.

Impact of a Statewide ST-Segment–Elevation Myocardial Infarction Regionalization Program on Treatment Times for Women, Minorities, and the Elderly

Background—Prior studies have demonstrated differences in time to reperfusion for ST-segment–elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) in women, minorities, and the elderly, relative to their counterparts. Regionalization has been shown to improve overall STEMI treatment times, but its impact on care differences among these important patient subgroups is unknown. The objective of this analysis was to assess the impact of a statewide system of STEMI care (The Reperfusion of Acute Myocardial Infarction in North Carolina Emergency Departments) on treatment times according to patient sex, race, and age. Methods and Results—STEMI treatment times were determined before (July 2005 to September 2005) and after (January 2007 to March 2007) a year-long implementation of coordinated regional treatment protocols. Times in the pre- and postintervention periods were compared by mixed-effects models. A total of 2063 STEMI patients were analyzed: 1140 at percutaneous coronary intervention hospitals and 923 at non–percutaneous coronary intervention hospitals. The Reperfusion of Acute Myocardial Infarction in North Carolina Emergency Departments was associated with significant improvements in treatment times in women and the elderly, including door-to-ECG, door-to-device, door-in–door-out, and door-to-needle times (all P<0.05). Temporal improvements in treatment times at percutaneous coronary intervention hospitals were not significantly different in blacks than in whites. There was a reduction in baseline treatment disparities in door-to-ECG times in women versus men (4.4-minute reduction in difference; 95% CI, −8.1 to −0.4; P=0.03). After Reperfusion of Acute Myocardial Infarction in North Carolina Emergency Departments, an age–treatment time gap persisted in the elderly, relative to younger patients. Conclusions—A statewide STEMI regionalization program was associated with comparable improvement in treatment times for female, black, and elderly patients compared with middle-aged, white male patients. Nevertheless, there remain opportunities to further narrow treatment differences, particularly among the elderly.

Care Processes Associated With Quicker Door-In–Door-Out Times for Patients With ST-Elevation–Myocardial Infarction Requiring Transfer Results From a Statewide Regionalization Program

Background—The ability to rapidly identify patients with ST-segment elevation–myocardial infarction (STEMI) at hospitals without percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) and transfer them to hospitals with PCI capability is critical to STEMI regionalization efforts. Our objective was to assess the association of prehospital, emergency department (ED), and hospital processes of care implemented as part of a statewide STEMI regionalization program with door-in–door-out times at non-PCI hospitals. Methods and Results—Door-in–door-out times for 436 STEMI patients at 55 non-PCI hospitals were determined before (July 2005 to September 2005) and after (January 2007 to March 2007) a year-long implementation of standardized protocols as part of a statewide regionalization program (Reperfusion of Acute Myocardial Infarction in North Carolina Emergency Departments, RACE). The association of 8 system care processes (encompassing emergency medical services [EMS], ED, and hospital settings) with door-in–door-out times was determined using multivariable linear regression. Median door-in–door-out times improved significantly with the intervention (before: 97.0 minutes, interquartile range, 56.0 to 160.0 minutes; after: 58.0 minutes, interquartile range, 35.0 to 90.0 minutes; P<0.0001). Hospital, ED, and EMS care processes were each independently associated with shorter door-in–door-out times (−17.7 [95% confidence interval, −27.5 to −7.9]; −10.1 [95% confidence interval, −19.0 to −1.1], and −7.3 [95% confidence interval, −13.0 to −1.5] minutes for each additional hospital, ED, and EMS process, respectively). Combined, adoption of EMS processes was associated with the shortest median treatment times (44 versus 138 minutes for hospitals that adopted all EMS processes versus none). Conclusions—Prehospital, ED, and hospital processes of care were independently associated with shorter door-in–door-out times for STEMI patients requiring transfer. Adoption of several EMS processes was associated with the largest reduction in treatment times. These findings highlight the need for an integrated, system-based approach to improving STEMI care.

The North Carolina EMS Data System: A Comprehensive Integrated Emergency Medical Services Quality Improvement Program

Abstract Background. The EMS Agenda for the Future describes emergency medical services (EMS) as the intersection between public health, public safety, and health care. The most comprehensive method to describe, evaluate, and optimize these systems of care is using a state EMS data system. A centralized EMS data system can be a valuable tool to identify, evaluate, target, and improve EMS service delivery and patient care. Significant barriers, however, still exist to the standardization of EMS data systems and infrastructure nationally. Indeed, there is no comprehensive measurement of EMS service delivery or patient volume at the national level. Objective. In this article, we describe the successful development of a fully integrated, statewide EMS data system for quality improvement of EMS service delivery and patient care in North Carolina. The article also provides a platform for linking EMS with emergency physicians, other health care providers, and public health agencies responsible for planning, disease surveillance, and disaster preparedness. Results and Conclusion. The North Carolina EMS Data System represents the successful development of a large, fully integrated, comprehensive statewide EMS database and quality improvement effort. The North Carolina EMS Data System applications include the Prehospital Medical Information System (PreMIS), the Credentialing Information System (CIS), the State Medical Asset Resource Tracking Tool (SMARTT), and the EMS Performance Improvement Toolkits. The system provides a quality and performance improvement program consistent with the idealized EMS design described in the EMS Agenda for the Future. The program has already achieved significant improvements in the quality of EMS service delivery, patient care, and integrated systems of care. Consistent with the goals of the 2007 Institute of Medicines recommendations for EMS, the linkage of the North Carolina EMS Data System with other health care registries has created an environment that can evaluate larger systems of care and ultimate patient outcomes.

Prehospital system delay in ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction care: A novel linkage of emergency medicine services and inhospital registry data

BACKGROUND Emergency medical services (EMS) are critical in the treatment of ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI). Prehospital system delays are an important target for improving timely STEMI care, yet few limited data are available. METHODS Using a deterministic approach, we merged EMS data from the North Carolina Pre-hospital Medical Information System (PreMIS) with data from the Reperfusion of Acute Myocardial Infarction in Carolina Emergency Departments-Emergency Response (RACE-ER) Project. Our sample included all patients with STEMI from June 2008 to October 2010 who arrived by EMS and who had primary percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI). Prehospital system delays were compared using both RACE-ER and PreMIS to examine agreement between the 2 data sources. RESULTS Overall, 8,680 patients with STEMI in RACE-ER arrived at a PCI hospital by EMS; 21 RACE-ER hospitals and 178 corresponding EMS agencies across the state were represented. Of these, 6,010 (69%) patients were successfully linked with PreMIS. Linked and notlinked patients were similar. Overall, 2,696 patients were treated with PCI only and were taken directly to a PCI-capable hospital by EMS; 1,750 were transferred from a non-PCI facility. For those being transported directly to a PCI center, 53% reached the 90-minute target guideline goal. For those transferred from a non-PCI facility, 24% reached the 120-minute target goal for primary PCI. CONCLUSIONS We successfully linked prehospital EMS data with in hospital clinical data. With this linked STEMI cohort, less than half of patients reach goals set by guidelines. Such a data source could be used for future research and quality improvement interventions.

A link to improve stroke patient care: a successful linkage between a statewide emergency medical services data system and a stroke registry.

OBJECTIVES regionalization of stroke care, including diversion to stroke centers, requires that emergency medical services (EMS) systems accurately identify acute stroke patients. A barrier to evaluating and improving EMS stroke patient identification is the inability to link EMS data with hospital data for individual patients. We sought to create and validate a linkage of the North Carolina EMS Data System (NC-EMS-DS) with data contained in the North Carolina Stroke Care Collaborative (NCSCC) Registry. METHODS all NCSCC Registry patients arriving to one of three hospitals by EMS in a 6-month period were matched against NC-EMS-DS. Records were deterministically matched on receiving hospital, hospital arrival date/time, age, and sex. We performed linkage validation by providing each site investigator with a stroke patient list derived from North Carolina Stroke Care Collaborative Registry (NC-EMS-DS), matched by individual patient to deidentified data in the NCSCCR. Each site investigator determined the set of true matches by comparing the matched list to a NCSCCR patient identifier key maintained at each site. Incorrect matches were reviewed by the research team to identify methods for future improvement in the matching logic. RESULTS for the three validation hospitals, 753 NCSCC Registry patients arrived by EMS. For these patients, 473 (63%) matches to local EMS records were identified, and 421 (89%) of the matches were verified using full patient identifiers. Most match verification failures were due to incorrect date/time stamp and inability to find a corresponding EMS record. CONCLUSIONS linking EMS records electronically to a stroke registry is feasible and leads to a large number of valid matches. This small validation is limited by EMS data quality. Matching may improve with better EMS documentation and standardized facility documentation.

The use of national highway traffic safety administration uniform prehospital data elements in state emergency medical services data collection systems

Objective. Although the concept of emergency medical services (EMS) has existed for 30 years, there is little scientific evidence validating its impact on morbidity and mortality. A significant barrier to conducting meaningful assessments relates to the lack of reliable and uniform EMS data. The objective of this study was to determine the extent to which states incorporate the Uniform Prehospital EMS Data Elements into statewide EMS data collection systems. Methods. Study investigators requested and compared data elements from all states with a statewide prehospital data collection system. Results. During the study period, 43 states with statewide EMS data collection systems captured, on average, 79% of the Uniform Prehospital EMS Data Set. Variables considered essential to EMS evaluation were more likely collected (84%) than variables considered desirable (72%). Only eight (10%) of the 81 uniform data elements are collected by all 43 participating states. Conclusions. Findings suggest that related EMS data variables are collected by the majority of states across the country. This degree of similarity provides a foundation for establishing common fields that can be used to develop a national EMS registry.