Guillermina Almazan

Cannabinoids Promote Oligodendrocyte Progenitor Survival: Involvement of Cannabinoid Receptors and Phosphatidylinositol-3 Kinase/Akt Signaling

Cannabinoids exert pleiotropic actions in the CNS, including the inhibition of inflammatory responses and the enhancement of neuronal survival after injury. Although cannabinoid receptors are distributed widely in brain, their presence has not been investigated previously in oligodendrocytes. This study examined the expression of cannabinoid type 1 (CB1) receptors in rat oligodendrocytes in vivo and in culture and explored their biological function. Expression of CB1 receptors by oligodendrocytes was demonstrated immunocytochemically in postnatal and in adult white matter as well as in oligodendrocyte cultures. Reverse transcription-PCR and Western blotting further confirmed the presence of CB1 receptors. Oligodendrocyte progenitors undergo apoptosis with the withdrawal of trophic support, as determined by TUNEL assay and caspase-3 activation, and both the selective CB1 agonist arachidonyl-2′-chloroethylamide/(all Z)-N-(2-cycloethyl)-5,8,11,14-eicosatetraenamide (ACEA) and the nonselective cannabinoid agonists HU210 and (+)-Win-55212-2 enhanced cell survival. To investigate intracellular signaling involved in cannabinoid protection, we focused on the phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase (PI3K)/Akt pathway. HU210, (+)-Win-55212-2, and ACEA elicited a time-dependent phosphorylation of Akt. Pertussis toxin abolished Akt activation, indicating the involvement of Gi/Go-protein-coupled receptors. The CB1 receptor antagonist SR141716A partially inhibited Akt phosphorylation in response to HU210 and (+)-Win-55212-2 and abolished the effects of ACEA. Trophic support deprivation downregulated Akt activity, and cannabinoids recovered phospho-Akt levels. Inhibition of PI3K abrogated the survival action and the recovery of Akt activity in response to cannabinoids. SR141716A prevented only the protection conferred by ACEA. Nevertheless, SR141716A and the selective CB2 receptor antagonist SR144528 in combination inhibited the prosurvival action of HU210, which is in accordance with the finding of CB2 receptor expression by oligodendroglial cells. These data identify oligodendrocytes as potential targets of cannabinoid action in the CNS.

Localization of Functional Prostaglandin E2 Receptors EP3 and EP4 in the Nuclear Envelope

The effects of prostaglandin E2are thought to be mediated via G protein-coupled plasma membrane receptors, termed EP. However recent data implied that prostanoids may also act intracellularly. We investigated if the ubiquitous EP3 and the EP4 receptors are localized in nuclear membranes. Radioligand binding studies on isolated nuclear membrane fractions of neonatal porcine brain and adult rat liver revealed the presence of EP3 and EP4. A perinuclear localization of EP3α and EP4receptors was visualized by indirect immunocytofluorescence and confocal microscopy in porcine cerebral microvascular endothelial cells and in transfected HEK 293 cells that stably overexpress these receptors. Immunoelectron microscopy clearly revealed EP3α and EP4 receptors localization in the nuclear envelope of endothelial cells; this is the first demonstration of the nuclear localization of these receptors. Data also reveal that nuclear EP receptors are functional as they affect transcription of genes such as inducible nitric-oxide synthase and intranuclear calcium transients; this appears to involve pertussis toxin-sensitive G proteins. These results define a possible molecular mechanism of action of nuclear EP3 receptors.

Interleukin-1 Regulates Proliferation and Differentiation of Oligodendrocyte Progenitor Cells

Interleukin-1 (IL-1) is a pleiotropic cytokine expressed during normal CNS development and in inflammatory demyelinating diseases, but remarkably little is known about its effect on oligodendroglial cells. In this study we explored the role of IL-1beta in oligodendrocyte progenitors and differentiated oligodendrocytes. The effects of IL-1beta were compared to those of IL-1 receptor antagonist, the specific inhibitor of IL-1 activity, since progenitors and differentiated oligodendrocytes produce IL-1beta and express IL-1 receptors. Unlike other proinflammatory cytokines (TNFalpha and IFNgamma), IL-1beta was not toxic for oligodendrocyte lineage cells. However, this cytokine inhibited proliferation of oligodendrocyte progenitors in the presence of growth factors (PDGF plus bFGF). This was evidenced by a significant decrease in both cells incorporating bromodeoxyuridine (45%) and total cell numbers (57%) after 6 days of treatment. Interestingly, IL-1beta blocked proliferation at the late progenitor/prooligodendrocyte (O4+) stage but did not affect proliferation of early progenitors (A2B5+). Inhibition of proliferation paralleled with promotion of differentiation, as revealed by the increased percentage of R-mab+ cells (6.7-fold). Moreover, when oligodendrocyte progenitors were allowed to differentiate in the absence of growth factors, treatment with IL-1beta promoted maturation to the MBP+ stage (4.2-fold) and survival of differentiating oligodendrocytes (2.1-fold). Regarding intracellular signaling, IL-1beta activated the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) but not the p42/p44 MAPK and, when combined with growth factors, intensified p38 activation but inhibited the growth-factor-induced p42/p44 activation. IL-1beta also induced a time-dependent inhibition of PFGF-Ralpha gene expression. These results support a role for IL-1beta in promoting mitotic arrest and differentiation of oligodendrocyte progenitors as well as maturation and survival of differentiating oligodendrocytes.

Nuclear Retention of MBP mRNAs in the Quaking Viable Mice

Quaking viable (qk(v)) mice fail to properly compact myelin in their central nervous systems. Although the defect in the qk(v) mice involves a mutation affecting the expression of the alternatively spliced qk gene products, their roles in myelination are unknown. We show that the QKI RNA binding proteins regulate the nuclear export of MBP mRNAs. Disruption of the QKI nucleocytoplasmic equilibrium in oligodendrocytes results in nuclear and perikaryal retention of the MBP mRNAs and lack of export to cytoplasmic processes, as it occurs in qk(v) mice. MBP mRNA export defect leads to a reduction in the MBP levels and their improper cellular targeting to the periphery. Our findings suggest that QKI participates in myelination by regulating the mRNA export of key protein components.

Protection of p27Kip1 mRNA by quaking RNA binding proteins promotes oligodendrocyte differentiation

The quaking (Qk) locus expresses a family of RNA binding proteins, and the expression of several alternatively spliced isoforms coincides with the development of oligodendrocytes and the onset of myelination. Quaking viable (Qkv) mice harboring an autosomal recessive mutation in this locus have uncompacted myelin in the central nervous system owing to the inability of oligodendrocytes to properly mature. Here we show that the expression of two QKI isoforms, absent from oligodendrocytes of Qkv mice, induces cell cycle arrest of primary rat oligodendrocyte progenitor cells and differentiation into oligodendrocytes. Injection of retroviruses expressing QKI into the telencephalon of mouse embryos induced differentiation and migration of multipotential neural progenitor cells into mature oligodendrocytes localized in the corpus callosum. The mRNA encoding the cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK)-inhibitor p27Kip1 was bound and stabilized by QKI, leading to an increased accumulation of p27Kip1 protein in oligodendrocytes. Our findings demonstrate that QKI is upstream of p27Kip1 during oligodendrocyte differentiation.

A novel mechanism for vasoconstrictor action of 8-isoprostaglandin F2α on retinal vessels

Using a video-imaging technique, we characterized the effects of 8-isoprostaglandin F2α(8-iso-PGF2α) on retinal vasculature from piglets. 8-Iso-PGF2α potently contracted (EC50 = 5.9 ± 0.5 nM) retinal vessels. These effects were completely antagonized by the cyclooxygenase inhibitor indomethacin, the thromboxane synthase blocker CGS-12970, the thromboxane receptor antagonist L-670596, and the putative inhibitor of the non-voltage-dependent receptor-operated Ca2+ pathway SKF-96365; constrictor effects of 8-iso-PGF2α were also partly attenuated by the ETA-receptor blocker BQ-123 and an inhibitor of endothelin-converting enzyme, phosphoramidon, but was negligibly affected by the L-type voltage-gated Ca2+ channel blocker nifedipine. Correspondingly, 8-iso-PGF2αelicited endothelin release from retinal preparations, which was markedly reduced by SKF-96365. 8-Iso-PGF2α also increased thromboxane production in the retina and cultured endothelial cells, but not on retinovascular smooth muscle cells; these effects of 8-iso-PGF2α were blocked by indomethacin, CGS-12970, SKF-96365, and EGTA, but not by nifedipine. 8-Iso-PGF2α also increased Ca2+ transients in retinal endothelial cells, which were inhibited by SKF-96365 and EGTA, but not by nifedipine, whereas in smooth muscle cells U-46619, but not 8-iso-PGF2α, stimulated a rise in Ca2+ transients. Finally, H2O2+ FeCl2 (in vitro) and anoxia followed by reoxygenation (in vivo) stimulated formation of 8-iso-PGF2α in the retina. In conclusion, 8-iso-PGF2α-induced retinal vasoconstriction is mediated by cyclooxygenase-generated formation of thromboxane and, to a lesser extent, by endothelin after Ca2+ entry into cells, possibly through receptor-operated channels. Retinal vasoconstriction to 8-isoprostanes might play a role in the genesis of ischemic retinopathies.

AMPA receptor-mediated toxicity in oligodendrocyte progenitors involves free radical generation and activation of JNK, calpain and caspase 3

The molecular mechanisms underlying AMPA (α‐amino‐3‐hydroxy‐5‐methylisoxazole‐4‐propionate) receptor‐mediated excitotoxicity were characterized in rat oligodendrocyte progenitor cultures. Activation of AMPA receptors, in the presence of cyclothiazide to selectively block desensitization, produced a massive Ca2+ influx and cytotoxicity which were blocked by the antagonists CNQX and GYKI 52466. A role for free radical generation in oligodendrocyte progenitor cell death was deduced from three observations: (i) treatment with AMPA agonists decreased intracellular glutathione; (ii) depletion of intracellular glutathione with buthionine sulfoximine potentiated cell death; and (iii) the antioxidant N‐acetylcysteine replenished intracellular glutathione and protected cultures from AMPA receptor‐mediated toxicity. Cell death displayed some characteristics of apoptosis, including DNA fragmentation, chromatin condensation and activation of caspase‐3 and c‐Jun N‐terminal kinase (JNK). A substrate of calpain and caspase‐3, α‐spectrin, was cleaved into characteristic products following treatment with AMPA agonists. In contrast, inhibition of either caspase‐3 by DEVD‐CHO or calpain by PD 150606 protected cells from excitotoxicity. Our results indicate that overactivation of AMPA receptors causes apoptosis in oligodendrocyte progenitors through mechanisms involving Ca2+ influx, depletion of glutathione, and activation of JNK, calpain, and caspase‐3.

Amyloid β-Induced Nerve Growth Factor Dysmetabolism in Alzheimer Disease

We previously reported that the precursor form of nerve growth factor (pro-NGF) and not mature NGF is liberated in the CNS in an activity-dependent manner, and that its maturation and degradation occur in the extracellular space by the coordinated action of proteases.Here, we present evidence of diminished conversion of pro-NGF to its mature form and of greater NGF degradation in Alzheimer disease (AD) brain samples compared with controls. These alterations of the NGF metabolic pathway likely resulted in the increased pro-NGF levels. The pro-NGF was largely in a peroxynitrited form in the AD samples. Intrahippocampal injection of amyloid-&bgr; oligomers provoked similar upregulation of pro-NGF in naive rats that wasaccompanied by evidence of microglial activation (CD40), increased levels of inducible nitric oxide synthase, and increased activity of the NGF-degrading enzyme matrix metalloproteinase 9. The elevated inducible nitric oxide synthase provoked the generation of biologically inactive, peroxynitrite-modified pro-NGF in amyloid-&bgr; oligomer-injected rats. These parameters were corrected by minocycline treatment. Minocycline also diminished altered matrix metalloproteinase 9, inducible nitric oxide synthase, and microglial activation (CD40); improved cognitive behavior; and normalized pro-NGF levels in a transgenic mouse AD model. The effects of amyloid-&bgr; amyloid CNS burden on NGF metabolism may explain the paradoxical upregulation of pro-NGF in AD accompanied by atrophy of forebrain cholinergic neurons.

IGF-I-induced oligodendrocyte progenitor proliferation requires PI3K/Akt, MEK/ERK, and Src-like tyrosine kinases

Insulin‐like growth factor‐I (IGF‐I) is required for the growth of oligodendrocytes, although the underlying mechanisms are not fully understood. Our aim was to investigate the role of phosphatidylinositol 3‐kinase (PI3K), mitogen‐activated protein kinase kinase (MEK1), and Src family tyrosine kinases in IGF‐I‐stimulated proliferation of oligodendrocyte progenitors. IGF‐I treatment increased the proliferation of cultured oligodendrocyte progenitors as determined by measuring incorporation of [3H]‐thymidine and bromodeoxy‐uridine (BrdU). IGF‐I stimulated a transient phosphorylation of 3‐phosphoinositide‐dependent kinase‐1 (PDK1) and extracellular signal‐regulated kinases (ERK1/2) (targets of MEK1), as well as a rapid and sustained activation of Akt (a target of PI3K). Furthermore, inhibitors of PI3K (LY294002 and Wortmannin), MEK1 (PD98059 and U0126), and Src family tyrosine kinases (PP2) decreased IGF‐I‐induced proliferation, and blocked ERK1/2 activation. LY294002, Wortmannin and PP2 also blocked Akt activation. To further determine whether Akt is required for IGF‐I stimulated oligodendrocyte progenitor proliferation, cultures were infected with adenovirus vectors expressing dominant‐negative mutants of Akt or treated with pharmacological inhibitors of Akt. All treatments reduced IGF‐I‐induced oligodendrocyte progenitor proliferation. Our data indicate that stimulation of oligodendrocyte progenitor proliferation by IGF‐I requires Src‐like tyrosine kinases as well as the PI3K/Akt and MEK1/ERK signaling pathways.

IGF‐1‐stimulated protein synthesis in oligodendrocyte progenitors requires PI3K/mTOR/Akt and MEK/ERK pathways

Insulin‐like growth factor‐1 (IGF‐1) interacts with the Type I receptor to activate two main signaling pathways, the mitogen‐activated protein kinase kinase (MEK)‐extracellular signal‐regulated kinase (ERK) and the phosphatidylinositol 3‐kinase (PI3K)‐Akt cascades, which mediate proliferation or survival of oligodendrocyte (OL) progenitors (OLPs). In other cellular systems, mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) and the p70 S6 kinase are downstream effectors that phosphorylate translation initiation factors (e.g. eIF‐4E), their regulators (e.g. 4E‐binding protein 1, 4E‐BP1) and ribosomal protein S6 (S6). The aim of this study was to determine whether these pathways are involved in IGF‐1‐stimulated protein synthesis, important for growth and differentiation of OLs. Rat cultured OLPs were treated with IGF‐1 with or without inhibitors of PI3K (LY294002 or Wortmannin), mTOR (rapamycin), MEK (PD98059), and Akt (III or IV), as well as an adenovirus encoding a dominant negative form of Akt. Protein synthesis, as assessed by [35S]‐methionine incorporation, was stimulated by IGF‐1 and required the upstream activation of PI3K, Akt, mTOR and MEK/ERK. Concordant with the experiments using protein kinase inhibitors, western blotting revealed that IGF‐1 stimulates phosphorylation of Akt, mTOR, ERK, S6 and 4E‐BP1. Activation of S6 and inactivation of 4E‐BP1, necessary for protein synthesis to take place, were dependent on the upstream activation of PI3K and mTOR. Finally, IGF‐1 consistently stimulated protein synthesis through mTOR in differentiating OLPs but mRNA transcription was not required at day 4, indicating a differential role of IGF‐1 throughout OL development.