Guiqing Zhao

Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Expression of Microsomal Prostaglandin E Synthase-1 Mediates Late-Phase PGE2 Production in Bone Marrow Derived Macrophages

Cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 expression and release of prostaglandins (PGs) by macrophages are consistent features of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced macrophage inflammation. The two major PGs, PGE2 and PGD2, are synthesized by the prostanoid isomerases, PGE synthases (PGES) and PGD synthases (PGDS), respectively. Since the expression profile and the individual role of these prostanoid isomerases-mediated inflammation in macrophages has not been defined, we examined the LPS-stimulated PGs production pattern and the expression profile of their synthases in the primary cultured mouse bone marrow derived macrophages (BMDM). Our data show that LPS induced both PGE2 and PGD2 production, which was evident by ∼8 hrs and remained at a similar ratio (∼1∶1) in the early phase (≤12 hrs) of LPS treatment. However, PGE2 production continued increase further in the late phase (16–24 hrs); whereas the production of PGD2 remained at a stable level from 12 to 24 hrs post-treatment. In response to LPS-treatment, the expression of both COX-2 and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) was detected within 2 to 4 hrs; whereas the increased expression of microsomal PGES (mPGES)-1 and a myeloid cell transcription factor PU.1 did not appear until later phase (≥12 hrs). In contrast, the expression of COX-1, hematopoietic-PGDS (H-PGDS), cytosolic-PGES (c-PGES), or mPGES-2 in BMDM was not affected by LPS treatment. Selective inhibition of mPGES-1 with either siRNA or isoform-selective inhibitor CAY10526, but not mPGES-2, c-PGES or PU.1, attenuated LPS-induced burst of PGE2 production indicating that mPGES-1 mediates LPS-induced PGE2 production in BMDM. Interestingly, selective inhibition of mPGES-1 was also associated with a decrease in LPS-induced iNOS expression. In summary, our data show that mPGES-1, but not mPGES-2 or c-PGES isomerase, mediates LPS-induced late-phase burst of PGE2 generation, and regulates LPS-induced iNOS expression in BMDM.

Pivotal Role of Reactive Oxygen Species in Differential Regulation of Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Prostaglandins Production in Macrophages

Gram-negative bacterial endotoxin lipopolysaccharide (LPS) triggers the production of inflammatory cytokines, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and prostaglandins (PGs) by pulmonary macrophages. Here, we investigated if ROS influenced PGs production in response to LPS treatment in mouse bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDM). We observed that pretreatment of BMDM with two structurally unrelated ROS scavengers, MnTMPyP and EUK-134, not only prevented LPS-induced ROS accumulation, but also attenuated the LPS-induced PGD2, but not PGE2, production. Conversely LPS-induced PGD2, but not PGE2, production, was potentiated with the cotreatment of BMDM with H2O2. These data suggest that ROS differentially regulate PGD2 and PGE2 production in BMDM. In addition, selective inhibition of the ROS generator NADPH oxidase (NOX) using either pharmacologic inhibitors or its p47phox subunit deficient mouse BMDM also attenuated LPS-induced PGD2, but not PGE2 production, suggesting the critical role of NOX-generated ROS in LPS-induced PGD2 production in BMDM. We further found that both hematopoietic PGD synthase (H-PGDS) siRNA and its inhibitor HQL-79, but not lipocalin PGDS (L-PGDS) siRNA and its inhibitor AT-56, significantly attenuated LPS-induced PGD2 production, suggesting that H-PGDS, but not L-PGDS, mediates LPS-induced PGD2 production in BMDM. Furthermore, data from our in vitro cell-free enzymatic studies showed that coincubation of the recombinant H-PGDS with either MnTMPyP, EUK-134, or catalase significantly decreased PGD2 production, whereas coincubation with H2O2 significantly increased PGD2 production. Taken together, our results show that LPS-induced NOX-generated ROS production differentially and specifically regulates the H-PGDS-mediated production of PGD2, but not PGE2, in mouse BMDM.

Competitive Enzymatic Interactions Determine the Relative Amounts of Prostaglandins E2 and D2

Prostaglandins (PGs) are a family of cellular messengers exerting diverse homeostatic and pathophysiologic effects. Recently, several studies reported significant increases of PGI2 and PGF2α after the inhibition of microsomal PGE synthase-1 (mPGES-1) expression, which indicated that PGH2 metabolism might be redistributed when the PGE2 pathway is blocked. To address the determinants that govern the relative amounts of PGs, we developed an in vitro cell-free method, based on liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, to measure the exact amounts of these PGs formed in response to the addition of recombinant isomerases and their selective inhibitors. Our in vitro cell-free assay results were confirmed in cells using bone marrow-derived macrophage. Initially, we determined the in vitro stability of PGH2 and noted that there was spontaneous nonenzymatic conversion to PGD2 and PGE2. mPGES-1 markedly increased the conversion to PGE2 and decreased conversion to PGD2. Reciprocally, the addition of hematopoietic or lipocalin PGD synthase resulted in a relative increase of PGD2 and decrease of PGE2. A detailed titration study showed that the ratio of PGE2/PGD2 was closely correlated with the ratio of PGE synthase/PGD synthase. Our redistribution results also provide the foundation for understanding how PGH2 metabolism is redistributed by the presence of distal isomerases or by blocking the major metabolic outlet, which could determine the relative benefits and risks resulting from interdiction in nonrated-limiting components of PG synthesis pathways.