Gunnar Johannsen

Monitoring Behavior and Supervisory Control

Section 1 Man-Vehicle Control.- 1. Preview of Man-Vehicle Control Session.- 2. Some Aspects of Automation in Civil Transport Aircraft.- 3. Techniques for Display/Control System Integration in Supervisory and Monitoring Systems.- 4. Integrated Computer-Generated Cockpit Displays.- 5. Evaluation of Information Displays in Control and Monitoring Tasks.- 6. Man-Machine Relationship in SELTRAC.- 7. Driver Decision-Making Research in a Laboratory Simulation.- 8. Human Performance and Workload in Simulated Landing-Approaches with Autopilot-Failures.- 9. Evaluation of Vigilance Related to Visual Perception.- 10. Workload in Air Traffic Control - A Field Study.- 11. Pilot Workload Analysis Based upon In-Flight Physiological Measurements and Task Analysis Methods.- 12. The Measurement of Human Response in Man-Vehicle Control Situations.- 13. Pilot Workload Analysis.- 14. The Internal Model - What Does It Mean in Human Control?.- Section 2 General Models.- 1. Preview of Models of the Human Monitor/Supervisor.- 2. The Vigilance Increment: An Ideal Observer Hypothesis.- 3. Monitoring and Control of Unreliable Systems.- 4. Detection of Random Process Failures by Human Monitors.- 5. Attention, Control, and Sampling Behaviour.- 6. A Queueing Model of Monitoring and Supervisory Behaviour.- 7. The Model Supervisor Dilemma.- 8. Toward a General Model of Supervisory Control.- 9. The Human Operator Simulator - HOS.- 10. Adaptive Allocation of Decision Making Responsibility between Supervisor and Computer.- 11. Man/Machine Interaction in Adaptive Computer-Aided Control.- Section 3 Process Control.- 1. Preview of Process Control Session.- 2. The Behaviour of Process Operators under Emergency Conditions.- 3. Evaluation of Man-Machine Relationships in U.S. Nuclear Power Plants.- 4. Control Strategies of Novice and Experienced Controllers with a Slow Response System (A Zero-Energy Nuclear Reactor).- 5. Human Performance in Manual Process Control.- 6. Outlines of a Hybrid Model of the Process Plant Operator.- 7. The Man-Robot Interface in Automated Assembly.- 8. The Effect of Cost on the Sampling Behavior of Human Instrument Monitors.- 9. Parallel vs. Serial Instrumentation for Multivariable Manual Control in Control Rooms.- 10. Perceptual Organisation and the Design of the Man-Computer Interface in Process Control.- 11. Process Control - Simple and Sophisticated Display Devices as Decision Aids.- 12. Autonomous I/O-Colour-Screen System for Process Control with Virtual Keyboards Adapted to the Actual Task.- 13. Graphic Video Displays for Process and Man-Vehicle Control.- Section 4 Workshop Reports.- and Summary.- Workshop Discussion Report - Group I.- Workshop Discussion Report - Group II.- Workshop Discussion Report - Group III.- Workshop Discussion Report - Group IV.- Appendices.- Appendix A. Glossary of Special Terms.- Appendix B. Participants.

Internal representation, internal model, human performance model and mental workload

Abstract In supervising complex industrial processes, the human supervisor has to reach a certain performance while not exceeding the mental capacity he is willing to spend. A well-designed Human-Machine Interface, HUMIF, will help the supervisor to achieve these goals. A well-proven method of designing systems, particularly HUMIF, is to model system behavior, thus modeling human performance and mental load. This paper reviews the literature in the field of human-machine systems, with special emphases on human operator models and mental load measures. The review is presented in terms of Rasmussens three level model and integrates the various articles in some well-defined concepts. An attempt is made to elucidate what can be expected of modeling techniques with reference to HUMIF design.

Knowledge engineering for industrial expert systems

Abstract The inherent difficulties involved in the process of extracting knowledge from experts are discussed and identified. Such difficulties have resulted in few expert systems progressing beyond the prototyping stage. The conflicting terminology used to describe the whole process is examined and, as a result, knowledge engineering is defined as the appropriate term for the whole process. This is then further split into knowledge acquisition and system implementation. Finally, knowledge acquisition is further subdivided into knowledge elicitation and machine induction. The particular problems associated with the construction of expert systems in industrial control applications are discussed. Such systems are characterised by the nature of their user population, the type of support provided and whether they operate on-line or off-line. The importance of defining functionality and goals at the outset is stressed. The need for user models is also highlighted. The various techniques used in knowledge elicitation—interviews, questionnaires, observations, protocol analyses, teachback interviewing, walkthroughs and formal techniques—are briefly reviewed. The alternative approach using machine induction techniques is also discussed. An examination is made of the competing approaches involving bottom-up and top-down techniques. The benefits resulting from the application of cognitive task analyses rather than technology-driven approaches are also stressed. Current knowledge acquisition tools such as KRITON, KADS, ACQUIST, KEATS and ROGET are reviewed. Examples are given of the use of time-line techniques in power plant knowledge acquisition, knowledge and task analyses in the construction of a failure management expert system and of the use of inductive techniques in gas-oil separator design and satellite power systems control. In the latter case, the use of qualitative modelling is highlighted. The possiblity of domain experts in industrial control carrying out their own knowledge engineering is examined but rejected as unlikely, unless better tools exist. The provision of better tools is identified as one of the key factors required to simplify the knowledge engineering process.

Theoretical problems in man-machine systems and their experimental validation

Abstract This survey paper focusses on the main theoretical issues in todays man-machine systems research and applications. The following problem areas are discussed: (1) modelling human performance and mental workload, with identifying the state of the art as well as major methodological difficulties; (2) task allocation and decision support, with a human-centred perspective on cooperative problem solving, integrated automation, and distributed decision making in teams; (3) man-machine interfaces, with outlining some presentation and dialogue issues; (4) design problems, with stressing the need of early active participation of man-machine-systems specialists and the usefulness of guidelines; and, finally, (5) evaluation and experimental validation, with covering laboratory and field evaluations, with covering laboratory and field evaluations, experimental design and validation, as well as model-driven experimentation. The importance of man-machine-systems contributions to the design of better technical systems and their user acceptability is emphasised.

Towards a new quality of automation in complex man-machine systems

Abstract Supervisory control of dynamic technical systems can be changed towards a new quality of automation and cooperative man-machine decision making. This will be achieved by using technologies of knowledge-based support systems and cognitive engineering. Human-centred design approaches are needed for building such advanced automation systems for process supervision and control. Appropriate function and task allocations between human operators and computers as well as between computer control and computer support have to be found. A conceptual structure and a mathematical framework for describing the human-automation synergism in future technical systems are proposed in this paper. The conceptual structure differentiates between the general task categories of controlling and problem solving for both human and automation. It is further based on the structure of an extended User Interface Management System (UIMS) which suggests a separation into presentation, dialogue, user or operator model, application model, and tasks to be performed. Human operator behaviour, supervision and control, decision support (both application and operator oriented), and man-machine interfaces (with presentation and dialogue) are related to each other on different levels. Four examples from recent projects demonstrate the applicability of the human-centred approach towards advanced automation. Heuristic control of industrial processes as well as diagnosis of causes of technical failures in power plants are explained as examples for application oriented functionalities. Human error detection and flexible automation in aircraft guidance as well as procedural support for information search are described as possibilities for human operator oriented support.

Knowledge-based dialogue for dynamic systems

Abstract As dynamic systems have become larger and more complex the problems associated with providing good dialogue systems have increased and there have been cases which have highlighted the need for better dialogues. Current dialogues are thought by operators to be inflexible and unstructured, the more an interface is automated the more it often hides what is really happening in the dynamic system. Such characteristics can be traced to the present limitations of communication devices and the ways in which communication and system knowledge are stored and accessed. There have been a number of advances recently in knowledge-based systems, dialogue architectures and computer graphics which could be used to provide improved interfaces. For example, techniques for representing both shallow and deep knowledge have been proposed, dialogue design has been improved by separating the functionality between Presentation, Dialogue Control and Application Modelling, and the Presentation has been considerably improved by enhanced colour graphics systems. The paper briefly discusses current difficulties in the control of dynamic systems and reviews useful techniques in artificial intelligence. The importance of human-centred design is emphasized and the advantages resulting from separation of low-level and high-level dialogue using knowledge-based dialogue architectures is discussed. Approaches to dialogue design in computer systems and dynamic systems are compared. Some current research progress and implementations in dynamic systems are reviewed.

Auditory displays in human-machine interfaces

Auditory displays are described for several application domains: transportation, industrial processes, health care, operation theaters, and service sectors. Several types of auditory displays are compared, such as warning, state, and intent displays. Also, the importance for blind people in a visualized world is considered with suitable approaches. The service robot domain has been chosen as an example for the future use of auditory displays within multimedia process supervision and control applications in industrial, transportation, and medical systems. The design of directional sounds and of additional sounds for robot states, as well as the design of more complicated robot sound tracks, are explained. Basic musical elements and robot movement sounds have been combined. Two exploratory experimental studies, one on the understandability of the directional sounds and the robot state sounds as well as another on the auditory perception of intended robot trajectories in a simulated supermarket scenario, are described. Subjective evaluations of sound characteristics such as urgency, expressiveness, and annoyance have been carried out by nonmusicians and musicians. These experimental results are briefly compared with time-frequency analyses.

Paper: Human system interface concerns in support system design

Current research needs and future prospects in the area of support to man-machine system analysis, design, and evaluation are described. We are especially concerned with system design requirements to enable efficient and effective human system interaction. Prospects for enhanced support to the human operator, in problem solving cognitive tasks that involve planning and design as well as physiological tasks that involve controlling, through use of knowledge based systems and decision support systems, are discussed.

Cooperative Human-Machine Interfaces for Plant-Wide Control and Communication

Abstract Cooperation and communication among different people have become more and more important for industrial, transportation, and service sectors. This survey paper integrates the achievements from the fields of human-machine and human-computer interfaces with the considerations about more cooperation and communication- A cognitive production space metaphor and a conceptual model of human control, problem solving and communication arc explained. The design principles and the components of human-machine interfaces are presented, including such issues as user participation, traditional and knowledge-based components, and advanced technologies. Examples of cooperative interfaces for multi-user interaction in plant-wide applications are discussed on different levels, such as the operational, the design, the maintenance, the management, and the marketing levels.

INTEGRATED SYSTEMS ENGINEERING: THE CHALLENGING CROSS-DISCIPLINE

Abstract Integrated systems engineering is concerned with the systematic development of large-scale systems by means of using integrative knowledge across several disciplines. The specific knowledge of a certain application domain with its systems structures and functionalities has to be complemented with knowledge about different information technologies, human factors issues, environmental constraints and societal contexts. All these facets and components as well as their relationships to each other are briefly reviewed in this paper. Industrial systems, transportation systems, enterprise information systems, natural resources systems, and the supplementary ways for improving societal stability are the application domains mentioned here. Also, the paper refers to the different systems engineering activities of IFAC. Several systems engineering methodologies as well as integrated systems development and evaluation approaches are outlined. The paper emphasises the challenge and the need for better integrative design and development strategies for future systems. It is also an introductory paper to the broad theme of this Conference on Integrated Systems Engineering.