Gustavo Ciudad

Biotechnological processes for biodiesel production using alternative oils

As biodiesel (fatty acid methyl ester (FAME)) is mainly produced from edible vegetable oils, crop soils are used for its production, increasing deforestation and producing a fuel more expensive than diesel. The use of waste lipids such as waste frying oils, waste fats, and soapstock has been proposed as low-cost alternative feedstocks. Non-edible oils such as jatropha, pongamia, and rubber seed oil are also economically attractive. In addition, microalgae, bacteria, yeast, and fungi with 20% or higher lipid content are oleaginous microorganisms known as single cell oil and have been proposed as feedstocks for FAME production. Alternative feedstocks are characterized by their elevated acid value due to the high level of free fatty acid (FFA) content, causing undesirable saponification reactions when an alkaline catalyst is used in the transesterification reaction. The production of soap consumes the conventional catalyst, diminishing FAME production yield and simultaneously preventing the effective separation of the produced FAME from the glycerin phase. These problems could be solved using biological catalysts, such as lipases or whole-cell catalysts, avoiding soap production as the FFAs are esterified to FAME. In addition, by-product glycerol can be easily recovered, and the purification of FAME is simplified using biological catalysts.

Improving fatty acid methyl ester production yield in a lipase-catalyzed process using waste frying oils as feedstock

The application of waste frying oil (WFO) mixed with rapeseed oil as a feedstock for the effective production of fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) in a lipase-catalyzed process was investigated. The response surface methodology (RSM) was used to optimize the interaction of four variables: the percentage of WFO in the mixed feedstock, the methanol-to-oil ratio, the dosage of Novozym 435 as a catalyst and the temperature. Furthermore, the addition of methanol to the reaction mixture in a second step after 8 h was shown to effectively diminish enzyme inhibition. Using this technique, the model predicted the optimal conditions that would reach 100% FAME, including a methanol-to-oil molar ratio of 3.8:1, 100% (wt) WFO, 15% (wt) Novozym 435 and incubation at 44.5 degrees C for 12 h with agitation at 200 rpm, and verification experiments confirmed the validity of the model. According to the model, the addition of WFO increased FAME production yield, which is largely due to its higher contents of monoacylglycerols, diacylglycerols and free fatty acids (in comparison to rapeseed oil), which are more available substrates for the enzymatic catalysis. Therefore, the replacement of rapeseed oil with WFO in Novozym 435-catalyzed processes could diminish biodiesel production costs since it is a less expensive feedstock that increases the production yield and could be a potential alternative for FAME production on an industrial scale.

Lipase-catalyzed process in an anhydrous medium with enzyme reutilization to produce biodiesel with low acid value.

One major problem in the lipase-catalyzed production of biodiesel or fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) is the high acidity of the product, mainly caused by water presence, which produces parallel hydrolysis and esterification reactions instead of transesterification to FAME. Therefore, the use of reaction medium in absence of water (anhydrous medium) was investigated in a lipase-catalyzed process to improve FAME yield and final product quality. FAME production catalyzed by Novozym 435 was carried out using waste frying oil (WFO) as raw material, methanol as acyl acceptor, and 3Å molecular sieves to extract the water. The anhydrous conditions allowed the esterification of free fatty acids (FFA) from feedstock at the initial reaction time. However, after the initial esterification process, water absence avoided the consecutives reactions of hydrolysis and esterification, producing FAME mainly by transesterification. Using this anhydrous medium, a decreasing in both the acid value and the diglycerides content in the product were observed, simultaneously improving FAME yield. Enzyme reuse in the anhydrous medium was also studied. The use of the moderate polar solvent tert-butanol as a co-solvent led to a stable catalysis using Novozym 435 even after 17 successive cycles of FAME production under anhydrous conditions. These results indicate that a lipase-catalyzed process in an anhydrous medium coupled with enzyme reuse would be suitable for biodiesel production, promoting the use of oils of different origin as raw materials.

Enzymatic biodiesel production kinetics using co-solvent and an anhydrous medium: a strategy to improve lipase performance in a semi-continuous reactor

Enzymatic biodiesel production kinetics under previously optimized conditions were investigated. Waste frying oil (WFO) was used as the raw material, Novozym 435 as catalyst, methanol as acyl acceptor and tert-butanol as co-solvent. To investigate pure transesterification kinetics improving product properties, 3Å molecular sieves were incorporated into the reaction to provide an anhydrous medium avoiding the side reactions of hydrolysis and esterification. The effects of either WFO or methanol on the reaction rate were analyzed separately. The reaction was described by a Ping Pong mechanism and competitive inhibition by methanol. The results obtained in the kinetics study were applied in the operation of a semi-continuous reactor for biodiesel production. The operational conditions of each reaction cycle were: methanol-to-oil ratio 8/1 (mol/mol), 15% (wt) Novozym 435, 0.75% (v/v) of tert-butanol, 44.5°C, 200 rpm and 4h of reaction time. The enzymes were successively reused by remaining in the reactor during all the cycles. Under these conditions, biodiesel production yields higher than 80% over 7 reaction cycles were observed. Both the kinetics study and the reactor operation showed that Novozym 435 was not inhibited at high methanol concentrations and that the kinetics of the proposed enzymatic process could be comparable to the conventional chemical process.

Performance of an enzymatic extract in Botrycoccus braunii cell wall disruption.

Microalgae can produce and contain lipids, proteins and carbohydrates, which can be extracted and marketed as potential novel added-value bio-products. However, microalgae cell wall disruption is one of the most important challenges involved while processing this type of biomass. In this context, white-rot fungi, responsible for the biodegradation of lignin present in wood due to non-specific extracellular enzymes, could be applied for promoting microalgae cell wall degradation. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the use of an enzymatic extract produced by the white-rot fungi Anthracophyllum discolor as a biotechnological tool for Botryococcus braunii cell wall disruption. The fungus was inoculated in wheat grains and manganese peroxidase (MnP) activity was monitored while obtaining the enzymatic extract. Then, cell wall disruption trials with different MnP activity were evaluated by the biochemical methane potential (BMP). In relation to cell wall disruption, it was observed that the optimal value was obtained with enzymatic concentration of 1000 U/L with a BMP of 521 mL CH4/g VS. Under these conditions almost 90% of biomass biodegradability was observed, increasing in 62% compared to the microalgae without treatment. Therefore, the results indicate that enzymes secreted by A. discolor promoted the attack of the different cell wall components finally weakening it. Therefore, the application of this treatment could be a promissory biotechnological approach to decrease the energetic input required for the cell wall disruption step.

Evaluation of different solvent mixtures in esterifiable lipids extraction from microalgae Botryococcus braunii for biodiesel production.

Non-polar and polar solvents as well as their mixtures were tested for the extraction of microalgae lipids and thus, to evaluate their effect on total and esterifiable lipids extraction yields with potential to be converted to biodiesel. The obtained results show an increase in lipids and esterifiable lipids extraction yields when non-polar and polar solvent mixtures were used. The higher esterifiable lipids extraction yield was 19.2%wt (based on dry biomass) using a chloroform-methanol mixture (75%v/v of methanol), corresponding to a 98.9%wt esterifiable lipids extraction. In addition, esterifiable lipids extraction yield of 18.9%wt (based on dry biomass) was obtained when a petroleum ether-methanol mixture (75%v/v of methanol) was used, corresponding to a 96.9%wt esterifiable lipids extraction.

Biodiesel synthesis by direct transesterification of microalga Botryococcus braunii with continuous methanol reflux

Direct transesterification of Botryococcus braunii with continuous acyl acceptor reflux was evaluated. This method combines in one step lipid extraction and esterification/transesterification. Fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) synthesis by direct conversion of microalgal biomass was carried out using sulfuric acid as catalyst and methanol as acyl acceptor. In this system, once lipids are extracted, they are contacted with the catalyst and methanol reaching 82%wt of FAME yield. To optimize the reaction conditions, a factorial design using surface response methodology was applied. The effects of catalyst concentration and co-solvent concentration were studied. Hexane was used as co-solvent for increasing lipid extraction performance. The incorporation of hexane in the reaction provoked an increase in FAME yield from 82% (pure methanol) to 95% when a 47%v/v of hexane was incorporated in the reaction. However, the selectivity towards non-saponifiable lipids such as sterols was increased, negatively affecting biodiesel quality.

Innovative approaches for effective selection of lipase-producing microorganisms as whole cell catalysts for biodiesel production.

The high cost of commercial lipases limits their industrial application in the production of biodiesel or fatty acid methyl esters (FAME). This disadvantage has encouraged the search for lipase-producing microorganisms (LPMs) as potential whole cell catalysts for FAME production. The aim of this study, therefore, was to evaluate innovative procedures for easy selection and testing of LPMs as a low-cost whole cell catalyst, based on catalytic performance, methanol tolerance and physico-chemical cell surface properties. The latter (in particular the cell surface hydrophobicity and charge) were analyzed because of their crucial role in microbial adhesion to surfaces and the concomitant increase in cell immobilization and bioavailability of hydrophobic substrates. Biocatalysis experiments performed in the presence of nutrient, rapeseed oil and methanol were an effective tool for studying and identifying, in just two experiments, the capacity of different LPMs as biocatalysts in organic media, as well as the methanol tolerance of the cell and the lipase. This indicates the potential for using live microorganisms for FAME production. Another finding was that the inhibitory effect of methanol is more significant for lipase activity than LPM growth, indicating that the way in which alcohol is supplied to the reaction is a crucial step in FAME production by biocatalysts. According to these results, the application of these innovative assessments should simplify the search for new strains which are able to effectively catalyze the FAME production process.

Feasible Novozym 435-Catalyzed Process to Fatty Acid Methyl Ester Production from Waste Frying Oil: Role of Lipase Inhibition

Fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) or biodiesel is a biofuel conventionally produced from edible oil and methanol, using an alkaline catalyst, through a transesterification reaction. As FAME is mostly produced from edible vegetable oils, crop soils are used for its production, increasing deforestation and producing a fuel more expensive than diesel. In addition, between 70 and 80% of the total FAME production costs correspond to the vegetable oils. Therefore, the use of waste lipids such as waste frying oils (WFO), waste fats and soapstock has been proposed as low-cost alternative to feedstock. Non-edible oils such as jatropha, pongamia and rubber seed oil are also economically attractive. In addition, microalgae, bacteria, yeast and fungi with 20% or higher lipid content are oleaginous microorganisms known as single cell oil and have been proposed as feedstock for FAME production. Alternative feedstocks are characterized by their elevated acid value due to the high level of free fatty acid (FFA) content, causing undesirable saponification reactions when an alkaline catalyst is used in the transesterification reaction. The production of soap consumes the conventional catalyst, diminishing FAME production yield and simultaneously preventing the effective separation of the produced FAME from the glycerin phase. These problems could be solved using biological catalysts, such as lipases or whole cell catalysts, avoiding soap production since the FFAs are esterified to FAME. In addition, by-product glycerol can be easily recovered and the purification of FAME is simplified using biological catalysts.